Deviance: Definitions, Theories, and Sociological Perspectives

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Chapter 1 – Determining Deviance

1.1 The Objective / Subjective Dichotomy

The objective/subjective dichotomy is a foundational debate in sociology, especially in the study of deviance. It asks whether deviance is an inherent quality or a label assigned by society.

Objective Perspective: Focuses on the act itself, assuming some behaviors are inherently deviant.
Subjective Perspective: Focuses on how society defines and reacts to acts, emphasizing that deviance is relative and constructed.
Objectivism: Acts are inherently right or wrong.
Subjectivism: Morality is relative and socially defined.
Example: Cannabis use may be considered deviant in one society but not in another.

1.2 Four Objective Definitions of Deviance (and their Limits)

Objectivist scholars propose four main definitions of deviance, each with limitations:

Definition	What it Means	Example	Limitation
Statistical Rarity	Deviance = uncommon behavior	Green hair, white nationalists	Rare ≠ wrong; heroes are rare too
Harm	Deviance = causes harm	Assault, smoking, terrorism	Harm is socially defined & exaggerated
Societal Reaction	Deviance = what people condemn	Racist groups	Whose reactions matter?
Normative Violation	Deviance = breaking norms	Theft, plagiarism	Norms differ across groups

Types of Harm:
- Physical – injury, illness
- Emotional – trauma, fear
- Social – threatens social order
- Ontological – threatens belief systems
Key Insight: Sometimes the reaction to deviance causes more harm than the act itself (e.g., cannabis prohibition).

1.3 Subjective Definition & Social Construction

Subjectivists argue that deviance is not inherent but is constructed through social processes and dominant moral codes.

Social Construction: Deviance is created, not discovered.
What matters is the behavior’s place in the social order, the roles assigned, and the meanings attached to the act.
Example: Tattoos may be deviant in one era but mainstream in another.

1.4 From Dichotomy to Continuum

Modern sociology sees objectivism and subjectivism as points on a continuum, not strict opposites. Research often blends both perspectives.

Studies may examine both the act and society’s reaction.
Example: Examining both the prevalence of drug use and how laws shape perceptions of deviance.

1.5 Studying Deviance: The “Deviance Dance” & Power

The study of deviance involves ongoing processes of definition, reaction, resistance, and redefinition, shaped by power dynamics.

Deviance Dance: The constant process of defining, reacting to, resisting, and redefining deviance.
Power: Exercised by individuals, groups, and institutions to shape moral codes and control narratives.
Example: Laws about sexuality have changed as power dynamics shift in society.

1.6 Social Typing Process (3 Components)

Deviance is created through a social typing process involving labeling, judging, and social control.

Labeling: Assigning the deviant label to a person or act.
Judging: Attaching meaning to the label.
Social Control: Punishment, regulation, or stigma applied to the labeled individual.
Wherever there is control, there is resistance.

Chapter 1 Summary

There is ongoing disagreement over what constitutes deviance.
The field has shifted from objective to subjective definitions.
Objective views focus on rarity, harm, societal reaction, and norm violation.
Subjective views see deviance as socially constructed by dominant moral codes.
Modern sociology views deviance as a process shaped by power, labeling, and resistance.

Chapter 2 – Explaining Deviance: The Act

2.1 Why Do Multiple Theories Exist?

There is no single theory of deviance because deviance is complex and contested. Theories differ in focus and underlying assumptions.

View	Focus	Question Asked
Objective	Deviance is real and measurable	Why do people commit deviant acts?
Subjective	Deviance is socially defined	Who decides what is deviant?

Positivist Approach: Studies causes of deviance (e.g., why crime rates rise).
Interpretive Approach: Studies meanings and labels (e.g., why some are called "criminal").
Critical Approach: Studies power and inequality (e.g., who benefits from laws).

2.2 Positivist Theories of Deviance

Positivist theories aim to scientifically explain why people break rules, assuming deviance is caused by external forces and can be measured.

Functionalist Theories: Social structure creates deviance.
Learning Theories: People learn deviance from others.
Control Theories: Weak social bonds and low self-control lead to deviance.

2.3 Functionalist Theories

Functionalist theories argue that deviance arises from the structure of society and serves important functions.

Durkheim – Anomie: Anomie is a state of normlessness. Deviance is normal and clarifies rules, but too much leads to social breakdown.
Merton – Anomie & Strain: Society promotes goals and means. When people cannot access legitimate means, they experience strain and adapt in different ways.

Mode	Goal	Means	Example
Conformity	✔	✔	Go to school
Innovation	✔	✘	Selling drugs
Ritualism	✘	✔	Dead-end job
Retreatism	✘	✘	Addiction
Rebellion	New	New	Radical groups

Differential Opportunity Theory: Access to legal and illegal opportunities varies by neighborhood, affecting deviance rates.
General Strain Theory (Agnew): Strain from failure, loss, or negative treatment leads to negative emotions and deviance.
Status Frustration Theory: Lower-class youth judged by middle-class standards may form delinquent subcultures.
Criticisms: Functionalism may blame the poor, ignore power, and overemphasize crime. Modern approaches include gender, race, and non-criminal deviance.

2.4 Learning Theories

Learning theories propose that deviant behavior is learned through social interactions and group influences.

Differential Association: People learn techniques, values, and motives for deviance from close groups.
Neutralization Theory: People justify deviance with rationalizations (e.g., "everyone does it"). These justifications often follow, not precede, deviant acts.
Social Learning Theory: Adds the role of rewards, punishments, and role models. Behavior is repeated if rewarded.
Criticisms: Direction of causality is unclear, learning is hard to measure, and structural factors may be overlooked. New research uses mixed methods and digital data.

2.5 Control Theories

Control theories focus on why most people conform rather than deviate, emphasizing the role of social bonds and self-control.

Social Bonds Theory (Hirschi): Four types of bonds prevent deviance:
- Attachment: Emotional ties to others
- Commitment: Investment in goals
- Involvement: Participation in activities
- Belief: Acceptance of rules
Weak bonds increase the likelihood of deviance.
Self-Control Theory (Gottfredson & Hirschi): Low self-control, often due to poor parenting, leads to impulsivity and risk-taking.
Criticisms: Self-control is hard to measure, may change over time, and peer influence is often ignored. New research combines control and learning theories.

Chapter 2 Big Picture

Theory Type	Explains
Functionalist	Structure → strain
Learning	Groups → deviance
Control	Weak bonds → deviance