BackA&P 2 Practical Review: Blood and Respiratory System Study Guide
Study Guide - Smart Notes
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Blood Components and Formed Elements
Blood Layers After Centrifugation
When blood is centrifuged, it separates into three distinct layers based on density:
Plasma: The top, liquid layer, making up about 55% of blood volume. Contains water, electrolytes, plasma proteins (albumin, fibrinogen, globulins), and transported substances.
Buffy Coat: The thin middle layer, consisting mainly of leukocytes (white blood cells) and platelets. This layer increases during infection.
Erythrocytes: The bottom layer, composed of red blood cells.
Hematocrit is the percentage of blood volume occupied by erythrocytes.
Formed Elements of Blood
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Provide defense and immunity. Classified as:
Granulocytes: Neutrophils (phagocytes), eosinophils (increase in allergies/parasitic infections), basophils.
Agranulocytes: Lymphocytes, monocytes.
Platelets: Cell fragments involved in blood clotting, formed from megakaryoblasts.
Blood Typing and Transfusions
Blood types are determined by antigens present on erythrocytes:
Type A: A antigens, anti-B antibodies.
Type B: B antigens, anti-A antibodies.
Type AB: A and B antigens, no anti-A or anti-B antibodies.
Type O: No A or B antigens, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
Rh Factor: Presence (Rh+) or absence (Rh-) of Rh antigen. Rh+ individuals do not have anti-D antibodies.
Transfusion Reactions: Occur when incompatible blood types are mixed, causing agglutination and hemolysis.
Hemostasis
Hemostasis is the process of stopping bleeding from damaged blood vessels. It involves:
Vascular Spasm: Immediate constriction of the blood vessel.
Platelet Plug Formation: Platelets adhere to the site and aggregate.
Coagulation: Formation of a blood clot.
ELISA and Immune System
ELISA Assays
ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) is a laboratory technique used to detect antigens or antibodies. There are four types:
Direct ELISA
Indirect ELISA
Sandwich ELISA
Competition Assay
In lab, the sandwich ELISA technique was used. Positive and negative controls are essential for assay validation. Buffer solutions wash wells to remove excess antibodies.
To determine if an ELISA test is positive, compare the sample to the positive control for expected outcome.
Key Definitions
Antigen: A substance that triggers an immune response.
Antibody: A protein produced by B cells that binds to specific antigens.
Enzyme: A protein that catalyzes biochemical reactions, often used in ELISA to produce a detectable signal.
Respiratory System Anatomy
Respiration Overview
Respiration involves the movement and exchange of gases:
Pulmonary Ventilation: Movement of air into (inspiration) and out of (expiration) the lungs.
External Respiration: Gas exchange between lungs and blood (oxygen loading, carbon dioxide unloading).
Transport of Respiratory Gases: Blood transports gases between lungs and tissues. Hemoglobin carries oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Internal Respiration: Gas exchange between blood and tissues (oxygen unloading, carbon dioxide loading).
Upper Respiratory System
External Nose: Visible structure with nostrils.
Nasal Cavity: Lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium; divided by septum.
Paranasal Sinuses: Resonance chambers for voice, warm/moisten air.
Larynx: Contains vocal folds for speech.
Laryngopharynx: Extends from epiglottis to larynx.
Lower Respiratory System
Trachea: Conducts air to lungs.
Bronchi: Trachea divides into main bronchi, which branch into bronchioles.
Bronchioles: Supported by smooth muscle, not cartilage.
Lungs: Main organs of respiration; right lung has three lobes, left lung has a cardiac notch.
Alveoli: Site of gas exchange; lined with simple squamous epithelium.
Muscles Responsible for Inspiration
Diaphragm: Main muscle for breathing.
External Intercostals: Muscles between ribs aiding ventilation.
Pulmonary Zones
Conducting Zone: Transports air to gas exchange sites.
Respiratory Zone: Includes respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli; participates in gas exchange.
Respiratory Physiology
Pulmonary Ventilation and Gas Exchange
Pulmonary ventilation is the process of breathing, consisting of inspiration and expiration. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs (external respiration) and tissues (internal respiration).
Respiratory Volumes
Tidal Volume (TV): Air inhaled/exhaled per breath at rest.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Air forcefully inhaled after normal inspiration.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Air forcefully exhaled after normal expiration.
Residual Volume (RV): Air remaining after forced expiration.
Respiratory Capacities
Total Lung Capacity:
Inspiratory Capacity:
Functional Residual Capacity:
Vital Capacity:
Respiratory Rate
The number of breaths taken per minute.
Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV)
FEV measures the amount of air forcibly expelled after maximal inhalation over a set time:
FEV1.0: Percentage of vital capacity expelled in one second (normal: 66-83%).
FEV2.0: Percentage expelled in two seconds (normal: 75-94%).
FEV3.0: Percentage expelled in three seconds (normal: 75-97%).
Pulmonary Diseases
Restrictive Pulmonary Disease: Reduced total lung capacity.
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Increased airway resistance.
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities Table
Volume/Capacity | Definition | Formula |
|---|---|---|
Tidal Volume (TV) | Air inhaled/exhaled per breath at rest | - |
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) | Air forcefully inhaled after normal inspiration | - |
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) | Air forcefully exhaled after normal expiration | - |
Residual Volume (RV) | Air remaining after forced expiration | - |
Total Lung Capacity | Total volume of lungs | |
Inspiratory Capacity | Maximum air inhaled after normal expiration | |
Functional Residual Capacity | Air remaining after normal expiration | |
Vital Capacity | Maximum air exhaled after maximal inhalation |
Example
If a student has a tidal volume of 500 mL, inspiratory reserve volume of 3000 mL, expiratory reserve volume of 1200 mL, and residual volume of 1200 mL:
Total Lung Capacity: mL
Vital Capacity: mL
Be able to identify and label respiratory volumes and capacities on a graph.
