A&P II Comprehensive Study Guide: Physiology, Blood, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Immune, Respiratory, Digestive, Metabolism, Urinary, Fluid/Electrolyte, Reproductive, and Development

{"type":"doc","content":[{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Endocrine System"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormones vs Neurotransmitters"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormones, which are chemical messengers released into the bloodstream. Neurotransmitters, in contrast, are released at synapses and act locally."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hormones:"},{"type":"text","text":" Travel via blood, act on distant targets, slower onset, longer duration."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Neurotransmitters:"},{"type":"text","text":" Act locally, rapid onset, short duration."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" Adrenaline (hormone) vs acetylcholine (neurotransmitter)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organs/Glands of the Endocrine System"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Pituitary gland"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Thyroid gland"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Parathyroid glands"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Adrenal glands"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Pancreas"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Gonads (ovaries/testes)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Pineal gland"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormone Regulation Steps"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormone release is regulated to maintain homeostasis."}]},{"type":"orderedList","attrs":{"start":1,"type":null},"content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stimulus (e.g., low blood glucose)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormone release"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Target organ response"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Correction of imbalance (homeostasis)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Water Soluble vs Fat Soluble Hormones"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Water-soluble:"},{"type":"text","text":" Peptides/proteins, bind to cell surface receptors, activate secondary messengers (e.g., cAMP)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Fat-soluble:"},{"type":"text","text":" Steroids, pass through cell membrane, bind to intracellular receptors, affect DNA/protein expression."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" Insulin (water-soluble) vs cortisol (fat-soluble)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Autocrine, Paracrine, Holocrine Hormones"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Autocrine:"},{"type":"text","text":" Act on the same cell that secretes them."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Paracrine:"},{"type":"text","text":" Act on nearby cells."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Holocrine:"},{"type":"text","text":" Entire cell disintegrates to release its substance (mainly in exocrine glands)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Anterior vs Posterior Pituitary Development"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Anterior pituitary:"},{"type":"text","text":" Derived from oral ectoderm, produces hormones."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Posterior pituitary:"},{"type":"text","text":" Derived from neural tissue, stores and releases hypothalamic hormones."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormone Chart"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Each hormone is released in response to a specific stimulus, acts on a target organ/tissue, and corrects a homeostatic imbalance."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" ADH released due to dehydration, acts on kidneys, increases water reabsorption."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Clinical Conditions"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Diabetes mellitus:"},{"type":"text","text":" Insulin deficiency/resistance."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hypothyroidism:"},{"type":"text","text":" Low thyroid hormone."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hyperthyroidism:"},{"type":"text","text":" Excess thyroid hormone."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Blood"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Components of Blood"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Plasma:"},{"type":"text","text":" 55% (water, proteins, nutrients, hormones)"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Formed elements:"},{"type":"text","text":" 45% (RBCs, WBCs, platelets)"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Structure and Scientific Names"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"RBC:"},{"type":"text","text":" Erythrocyte"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"WBC:"},{"type":"text","text":" Leukocyte"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Platelet:"},{"type":"text","text":" Thrombocyte"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Origin of Blood Cells"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Pleuripotent stem cell"},{"type":"text","text":" → Myeloid/lymphoid lineage → RBCs, WBCs, platelets"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Megakaryocyte"},{"type":"text","text":" breaks apart to form platelets"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Blood Component Percentages"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Plasma: ~55%"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"RBCs: ~45%"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"WBCs and platelets: