Advanced Human Physiology Exam 2 Review – Step-by-Step Study Guidance

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

Q1. What is free energy (in products and reactants) and activation energy? Endergonic and exergonic reactions? How do the two groupings relate to each other? Know the graphs for each and be able to label the reactants, products, activation energy and the axis with free energy and time.

Background

Topic: Bioenergetics and Chemical Reactions

This question tests your understanding of energy changes during chemical reactions, including the concepts of free energy, activation energy, and the classification of reactions as endergonic or exergonic. It also asks you to interpret and label reaction energy diagrams.

Key Terms and Formulas:

Free Energy (): The energy available to do work in a system.
Activation Energy (): The minimum energy required to start a reaction.
Endergonic Reaction: (requires energy input).
Exergonic Reaction: (releases energy).
Graph axes: Y-axis = Free Energy, X-axis = Time or Reaction Progress.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Start by defining free energy for both reactants and products. Consider how is calculated: .
Identify activation energy () on a reaction energy diagram. This is the energy difference between the reactants and the peak of the curve.
Distinguish between endergonic and exergonic reactions by comparing the free energy of products and reactants. Endergonic reactions have products with higher free energy than reactants, while exergonic reactions have products with lower free energy.
On a graph, label the reactants, products, activation energy, and axes (free energy vs. time or reaction progress).

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Q2. What are cofactors and coenzymes and what is their role?

Background

Topic: Enzyme Function and Regulation

This question tests your knowledge of enzyme helpers—cofactors and coenzymes—and their importance in catalyzing biochemical reactions.

Key Terms:

Cofactor: A non-protein chemical compound required for enzyme activity (can be inorganic, like metal ions).
Coenzyme: An organic molecule that acts as a cofactor (often derived from vitamins).

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define cofactors and coenzymes, noting their differences (inorganic vs. organic).
Explain how cofactors and coenzymes assist enzymes, often by stabilizing substrate binding or participating in the reaction.
Provide examples, such as Mg2+ as a cofactor and NAD+ as a coenzyme.

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Q3. Know the first and second laws of thermodynamics and how each relates to human health.

Background

Topic: Thermodynamics in Physiology

This question tests your understanding of fundamental energy principles and their application to biological systems.

Key Terms:

First Law: Conservation of energy ().
Second Law: Entropy increases ().

Step-by-Step Guidance

State the first law and relate it to how the body transforms energy (e.g., food to ATP).
State the second law and discuss how energy transformations in the body produce heat and increase entropy.
Connect these laws to human health, such as energy balance and metabolic efficiency.

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Q4. Types of chemical reactions starting with oxidation/reduction reactions

Background

Topic: Types of Biochemical Reactions

This question tests your ability to identify and describe different types of chemical reactions, especially redox reactions.

Key Terms:

Oxidation: Loss of electrons.
Reduction: Gain of electrons.
Other types: Hydrolysis, condensation, phosphorylation, etc.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define oxidation and reduction, and explain how they are coupled in biological systems.
List other types of reactions and briefly describe their roles in metabolism.
Provide examples of each type, such as glucose oxidation in cellular respiration.

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Q5. What is metabolism, anabolism and catabolism?

Background

Topic: Metabolic Pathways

This question tests your understanding of the overall processes that sustain life, including the breakdown and synthesis of molecules.

Key Terms:

Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body.
Anabolism: Building up molecules (requires energy).
Catabolism: Breaking down molecules (releases energy).

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define metabolism and its two main branches: anabolism and catabolism.
Explain how anabolism and catabolism are interconnected in metabolic pathways.
Give examples, such as protein synthesis (anabolism) and glucose breakdown (catabolism).

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Q6. How do cells regulate their metabolic pathways?

Background

Topic: Regulation of Metabolism

This question tests your understanding of how cells control the flow of metabolites through various pathways.

Key Terms:

Enzyme regulation: Allosteric control, feedback inhibition.
Gene expression: Control of enzyme synthesis.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Describe how enzyme activity is regulated (e.g., allosteric sites, inhibitors).
Explain how cells adjust metabolic pathway flux by controlling enzyme levels.
Discuss feedback mechanisms, such as end-product inhibition.

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Q7. What is the function of NAD and FAD?

Background

Topic: Electron Carriers in Metabolism

This question tests your knowledge of the roles of NAD and FAD in cellular respiration and energy production.

Key Terms:

NAD (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide): Electron carrier.
FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide): Electron carrier.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define NAD and FAD and their oxidized/reduced forms (, ).
Explain how they accept electrons during metabolic reactions.
Describe their role in transferring electrons to the electron transport chain.

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Q8. What goes in, what comes out and where do these three pathways take place? Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport System

Background

Topic: Cellular Respiration Pathways

This question tests your ability to summarize the inputs, outputs, and locations of the three main stages of cellular respiration.

Key Terms:

Glycolysis: Occurs in cytoplasm.
Citric Acid Cycle: Occurs in mitochondrial matrix.
Electron Transport System: Occurs in inner mitochondrial membrane.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main inputs and outputs for each pathway (e.g., glucose in glycolysis, acetyl-CoA in citric acid cycle).
Identify the cellular location for each pathway.
Summarize the overall flow of energy and electron carriers through these pathways.

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Q9. Where is the activation energy used in aerobic cellular respiration?

Background

Topic: Energy Requirements in Metabolism

This question tests your understanding of where energy input is needed during aerobic respiration.

Key Terms:

Activation energy: Energy required to initiate reactions.
Aerobic respiration: Includes glycolysis, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify steps in aerobic respiration that require an initial energy input (e.g., early steps of glycolysis).
Explain how enzymes lower activation energy to facilitate these reactions.
Discuss the importance of activation energy in controlling reaction rates.

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Q10. What is the chemical reaction for aerobic cellular respiration?

Background

Topic: Cellular Respiration Equation

This question tests your ability to recall and write the overall balanced equation for aerobic respiration.

Key Formula:

Step-by-Step Guidance

Write the reactants and products for aerobic cellular respiration.
Balance the equation to ensure conservation of mass.
Identify the main products: carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

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Q11. How much ATP does one molecule of glucose provide using anaerobic metabolism? What are the pros and cons of anaerobic metabolism?

Background

Topic: Anaerobic Metabolism

This question tests your understanding of ATP yield and the advantages/disadvantages of anaerobic pathways.

Key Terms:

Anaerobic metabolism: Glycolysis without oxygen.
ATP yield: Number of ATP molecules produced per glucose.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the number of ATP produced in glycolysis under anaerobic conditions.
List the pros (e.g., rapid ATP production) and cons (e.g., low yield, lactic acid buildup).
Compare anaerobic to aerobic metabolism in terms of efficiency.

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Q12. Amino acids: The roles of DNA and RNA in protein production as well as their structural differences. Define translation and transcription. What are the roles of messenger RNA, transfer RNA, and ribosomal RNA in protein synthesis?

Background

Topic: Protein Synthesis

This question tests your understanding of the molecular processes involved in making proteins, including the roles of DNA, RNA, and the steps of transcription and translation.

Key Terms:

DNA: Genetic blueprint.
RNA: Includes mRNA, tRNA, rRNA; each has a specific role.
Transcription: DNA to mRNA.
Translation: mRNA to protein.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Describe the structural differences between DNA and RNA (e.g., sugar, bases, strandedness).
Define transcription and translation, and outline their steps.
Explain the roles of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in protein synthesis.

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Q13. Who has more water and why?

Background

Topic: Body Water Content

This question tests your understanding of factors affecting body water composition.

Key Terms:

Body composition: Muscle vs. fat.
Age, gender, and health status.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify groups with higher water content (e.g., infants, males, athletes).
Explain why muscle contains more water than fat.
Discuss how age and gender affect total body water.

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Q14. Define isosmotic, hyperosmotic, and hyposmotic as well as hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic. What is being compared in each instance? What happens to the cell in each of the different tonic solutions?

Background

Topic: Osmosis and Tonicity

This question tests your understanding of osmotic and tonic relationships and their effects on cells.

Key Terms:

Isosmotic: Equal osmolarity.
Hyperosmotic: Higher osmolarity.
Hyposmotic: Lower osmolarity.
Hypertonic: Causes cell to shrink.
Isotonic: No net change in cell size.
Hypotonic: Causes cell to swell.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each term and specify what is being compared (solution vs. cell).
Explain the effect of each tonic solution on cell volume.
Relate osmolarity to tonicity and cell behavior.

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Q15. What is the difference between a penetrating and a nonpenetrating solute and how does it affect the movement of water and equilibrium?

Background

Topic: Solute Permeability and Osmosis

This question tests your understanding of how solute properties influence water movement and equilibrium across membranes.

Key Terms:

Penetrating solute: Can cross the membrane.
Nonpenetrating solute: Cannot cross the membrane.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define penetrating and nonpenetrating solutes.
Explain how each type affects water movement (osmosis).
Discuss how equilibrium is achieved differently depending on solute permeability.

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Q16. What is the role of structural proteins, enzymes, and receptors?

Background

Topic: Protein Functions

This question tests your knowledge of the diverse roles proteins play in cells.

Key Terms:

Structural proteins: Provide support and shape.
Enzymes: Catalyze reactions.
Receptors: Receive and transmit signals.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each protein type and its main function.
Give examples (e.g., collagen, ATP synthase, insulin receptor).
Explain how these proteins contribute to cell structure, metabolism, and communication.

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Q17. Discuss all the different types of transport proteins we talked about and the differences between them: channel and carrier

Background

Topic: Membrane Transport Proteins

This question tests your understanding of the mechanisms by which substances cross cell membranes.

Key Terms:

Channel proteins: Form pores for passive transport.
Carrier proteins: Bind and transport substances, may be passive or active.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define channel and carrier proteins and their functions.
Compare their mechanisms (e.g., channels are open, carriers undergo conformational change).
Discuss examples and the types of substances each transports.

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Q18. Discuss all the different transport processes we talked about: Diffusion, simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, protein mediated diffusion, primary active transport, secondary active transport, carrier mediated active transport.

Background

Topic: Membrane Transport Processes

This question tests your ability to distinguish between various ways substances move across membranes.

Key Terms:

Diffusion: Passive movement down concentration gradient.
Simple diffusion: Directly through membrane.
Facilitated diffusion: Via proteins.
Osmosis: Water movement.
Active transport: Requires energy.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each transport process and its energy requirements.
Explain the differences between passive and active transport.
Provide examples for each process.

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Q19. Be able to discuss the 7 characteristics of diffusion as well as the 2 additional properties of simple diffusion. What is the difference between the 2?

Background

Topic: Diffusion Properties

This question tests your understanding of the factors affecting diffusion and how simple diffusion differs from other types.

Key Terms:

Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
Simple diffusion: Direct movement through lipid bilayer.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the 7 characteristics of diffusion (e.g., concentration gradient, temperature, molecular size).
Identify the 2 properties unique to simple diffusion (e.g., lipid solubility, membrane surface area).
Explain the difference between simple diffusion and other types.

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Q20. What causes ions to move?

Background

Topic: Ion Movement

This question tests your understanding of the forces driving ion movement across membranes.

Key Terms:

Concentration gradient.
Electrical gradient.
Electrochemical gradient.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define concentration and electrical gradients.
Explain how the electrochemical gradient combines both forces.
Discuss examples, such as Na+ and K+ movement.

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Q21. Vesicular transport: be able to define and tell the difference between phagocytosis, endocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis, and exocytosis

Background

Topic: Vesicular Transport Mechanisms

This question tests your ability to distinguish between different types of vesicular transport.

Key Terms:

Phagocytosis: Cell eating.
Endocytosis: Uptake of substances.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Specific uptake via receptors.
Exocytosis: Release of substances.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each type of vesicular transport.
Explain the differences in mechanism and function.
Provide examples for each process.

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Q22. Epithelial transport: be able to define transcellular transport, and transcytosis

Background

Topic: Epithelial Transport

This question tests your understanding of how substances move across epithelial layers.

Key Terms:

Transcellular transport: Through cells.
Transcytosis: Combination of endocytosis and exocytosis.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define transcellular transport and transcytosis.
Explain the steps involved in each process.
Discuss their physiological significance.

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Q23. RMP: what is the normal RMP of a cell and what are the relative concentrations of Na+ and K+? What happens during depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization to both the charges and the ion concentrations?

Background

Topic: Membrane Potential and Ion Movement

This question tests your understanding of resting membrane potential and changes during action potentials.

Key Terms:

RMP (Resting Membrane Potential): Typically around -70 mV.
Na+: Higher outside cell.
K+: Higher inside cell.
Depolarization: Membrane potential becomes less negative.
Repolarization: Returns to resting state.
Hyperpolarization: Becomes more negative than resting.

Step-by-Step Guidance

State the typical RMP and relative ion concentrations.
Describe what happens to charges and ion movement during depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization.
Explain the physiological significance of these changes.

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Q24. Be able to talk about the different ways the body communicates including cell to cell communication using electrical signals and chemical signals. How do cells accomplish local communication and long-distance communication?

Background

Topic: Cellular Communication

This question tests your understanding of the mechanisms of cell signaling and communication.

Key Terms:

Electrical signals: Changes in membrane potential.
Chemical signals: Hormones, neurotransmitters.
Local communication: Paracrine, autocrine.
Long-distance communication: Endocrine, nervous system.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Describe electrical and chemical signaling mechanisms.
Explain how cells communicate locally (e.g., paracrine signaling).
Discuss long-distance communication (e.g., hormones, nerves).

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Q25. Signal Pathways: Why do some cells respond to signal molecules and others don’t? What are the common features of a signal pathway? (there are 4)

Background

Topic: Signal Transduction

This question tests your understanding of how cells detect and respond to signals.

Key Terms:

Receptors: Specificity for signal molecules.
Signal pathway features: Reception, transduction, response, termination.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Explain why only cells with the appropriate receptor respond to a signal.
List and describe the four common features of signal pathways.
Provide examples of signal pathways in physiology.

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Q26. What is the difference between a lipophilic signal molecule and a lipophobic signal molecule?

Background

Topic: Signal Molecule Properties

This question tests your understanding of how signal molecule properties affect their mechanism of action.

Key Terms:

Lipophilic: Fat-soluble, can cross membranes.
Lipophobic: Water-soluble, cannot cross membranes easily.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define lipophilic and lipophobic signal molecules.
Explain how each type interacts with cells (e.g., intracellular vs. membrane receptors).
Provide examples of each type.

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Q27. Define signal transduction, second messenger system, signal cascade and signal amplification

Background

Topic: Cellular Signaling Mechanisms

This question tests your understanding of the steps and concepts involved in cell signaling.

Key Terms:

Signal transduction: Conversion of signal to cellular response.
Second messenger: Intracellular signaling molecule.
Signal cascade: Series of reactions amplifying the signal.
Signal amplification: Increase in response strength.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each term and its role in signaling.
Explain how second messengers and cascades amplify signals.
Provide examples, such as cAMP or calcium as second messengers.

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Q28. What are the four categories of membrane receptors and the difference between them?

Background

Topic: Membrane Receptor Types

This question tests your ability to identify and distinguish between the main types of membrane receptors.

Key Terms:

Receptor types: Channel-linked, enzyme-linked, G protein-coupled, integrin.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the four categories of membrane receptors.
Describe the mechanism of action for each type.
Compare their functions and signaling pathways.