Anatomy & Physiology 1005: Study Guide Breakdown

Chapter 1 – Introduction

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the process by which living organisms maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.

• Definition: The regulation of the body's internal environment to maintain conditions suitable for life.

• Example: Regulation of body temperature, blood glucose levels.

Negative Feedback vs Positive Feedback Loop

Feedback loops are mechanisms that help maintain homeostasis.

• Negative Feedback: A process that reverses a change to keep a variable within a set range. Example: Body temperature regulation.

• Positive Feedback: A process that amplifies a change, moving the system away from its starting state. Example: Blood clotting, childbirth contractions.

Anatomical Positions and Landmarks

Standard anatomical positions and landmarks are used to describe locations and directions on the body.

• Anatomical Position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward.

• Landmarks: Reference points such as the sternum, navel, and iliac crest.

Body/Sectional Planes

Sectional planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body for anatomical study.

• Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right parts.

• Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

• Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.

Abdominal/Pelvic Quadrants

The abdomen is divided into four quadrants for diagnostic purposes.

• Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

• Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

• Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

• Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Chapter 2 – Chemical Level of Organization

Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds are chemical bonds formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

• Single, double, and triple covalent bonds differ in the number of shared electron pairs.

• Example: Water molecule (H2O) has covalent bonds between hydrogen and oxygen.

Distinction

Distinguishing between types of chemical bonds is essential for understanding molecular structure.

• Ionic Bonds: Formed by transfer of electrons.

• Covalent Bonds: Formed by sharing electrons.

Suspension

A suspension is a mixture in which particles are dispersed but not dissolved, and can settle out over time.

• Example: Blood is a suspension of cells in plasma.

Properties of Water (Hydrophobic vs Hydrophilic)

Water is a polar molecule, influencing how substances interact with it.

• Hydrophilic: Substances that dissolve easily in water (e.g., salts, sugars).

• Hydrophobic: Substances that do not dissolve in water (e.g., oils, fats).

Catabolism vs Anabolism

Metabolism consists of two opposing processes: catabolism and anabolism.

• Catabolism: Breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy.

• Anabolism: Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy.

Chapter 3 – Cell

Parts of the Cell

Cells are the basic units of life, composed of various organelles with specialized functions.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP production.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Protein and lipid synthesis.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption.

Cell Membrane

The cell membrane is a selectively permeable barrier that controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

• Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Osmosis (Isotonic vs Hypertonic vs Hypotonic)

Osmosis is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.

• Isotonic: Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell; no net water movement.

• Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside the cell; water moves out, cell shrinks.

• Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside the cell; water moves in, cell swells.

Diffusion

Diffusion is the passive movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration.

• Example: Oxygen entering cells from the bloodstream.

Cell Transport Processes

Cells use various transport mechanisms to move substances across membranes.

• Simple Diffusion: Movement of small, nonpolar molecules.

• Facilitated Diffusion: Movement via membrane proteins.

• Osmosis: Movement of water.

Bulk Transport

Bulk transport involves the movement of large particles or volumes across the cell membrane.

• Endocytosis: Uptake of materials into the cell.

• Exocytosis: Release of materials from the cell.

• Phagocytosis: "Cell eating"; engulfing large particles.

Chapter 4 – Tissues

Four Tissue Types

The human body is composed of four basic tissue types.

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, binds, and protects organs.

• Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement.

• Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical impulses.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue provides structural and metabolic support for other tissues and organs.

• Types: Loose, dense, adipose, cartilage, bone, blood.

Cartilage

Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in joints, ear, nose, and respiratory tract.

• Types: Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage.

Membranes (Mucous, Serous, Cutaneous, Synovial)

Body membranes cover surfaces, line cavities, and form protective sheets.

• Mucous Membranes: Line cavities open to the exterior (e.g., digestive tract).

• Serous Membranes: Line closed cavities (e.g., peritoneum).

• Cutaneous Membrane: The skin.

• Synovial Membranes: Line joint cavities.

Muscle Tissue (Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth)

Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction and movement.

• Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones.

• Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, found in the heart.

• Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, found in walls of hollow organs.

Nervous Tissue (Basic Level)

Nervous tissue is responsible for sensing stimuli and transmitting signals throughout the body.

• Neurons: Conduct electrical impulses.

• Neuroglia: Support and protect neurons.