Anatomy & Physiology Chapter Study Guide: Foundational Concepts

Chapter Checklist: Foundational Concepts in Anatomy & Physiology

Body Systems and Cavities

Understanding the organization of the human body is essential for studying anatomy and physiology. Students should be able to identify major body systems, their functions, and the orientation of body cavities.

• Body Systems: Groups of organs that work together to perform specific functions (e.g., nervous, circulatory, digestive).

• Body Cavities: Spaces within the body that house organs (e.g., thoracic, abdominal, pelvic cavities).

• Discipline vs. Anatomy: Recognize what constitutes a scientific discipline and describe anatomy and physiology briefly.

Additional info: Anatomy focuses on structure; physiology focuses on function.

Histology and Tissue Types

Histology is the study of tissues. Students should know the four basic tissue types and their defining characteristics.

• Epithelial Tissue: Protects and covers surfaces; forms glands.

• Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, protects, and binds other tissues.

• Nervous Tissue: Conducts impulses; coordinates body activities.

Structural Organization: Tissues are organized from least to most complex.

Anatomic Regions and Homeostasis

Students should be able to identify anatomical regions and understand the concept of homeostasis, including feedback mechanisms.

• Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Feedback Loop Components:

  • Receptor

  • Control Center

  • Effector

• Negative Feedback: Reduces the effect of the stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: Enhances the effect of the stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

Directional Terms and Anatomical Planes

Understanding directional terms and anatomical planes is crucial for describing locations and movements in the body.

• Directional Terms: Superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal.

• Anatomical Planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse.

Body Serosa and Membranes

Body serosa are membranes that line and cover body cavities and organs. Students should know the different types and their functions.

• Serous Membranes: Line body cavities not open to the outside (e.g., pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

• Double Layered Structure:

  • Parietal Layer – lines cavity wall

  • Visceral Layer – covers organs

• Function: Reduce friction between organs.

Chemical Bonds and Water Properties

Chemical bonds are essential for molecular structure and function. Water's properties are vital for biological processes.

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer electrons between atoms.

• Covalent Bonds: Share electrons between atoms.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions; important for water's surface tension.

• Water Properties: High heat capacity, solvent abilities, cohesion, and adhesion.

Carbohydrates and Solutions

Carbohydrates are energy sources; solutions are mixtures of substances in water.

• Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose).

• Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides joined (e.g., sucrose).

• Buffer: Maintains pH stability.

• Colloid: Mixture with large particles (e.g., gelatin).

• Suspension: Particles settle out (e.g., blood).

• Solution: Homogeneous mixture (e.g., saline).

Energy Terms

Understanding energy-related terms is important for metabolism and cellular processes.

• Anabolic: Building up molecules; requires energy.

• Catabolic: Breaking down molecules; releases energy.

• Endergonic: Energy-absorbing reactions.

• Exergonic: Energy-releasing reactions.

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

The cell cycle includes phases of growth and division. Mitosis is the process of cell division.

• Phases of Mitosis (PMAT):

  • Prophase

  • Metaphase

  • Anaphase

  • Telophase

Cell Structures and Organelles

Cells have specialized structures for various functions. Students should know the differences between cilia, microvilli, and flagella, and the roles of organelles.

• Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption.

• Cilia: Move substances across cell surfaces.

• Flagella: Enable cell movement.

• Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell; produces ATP.

Plasma Membrane Structure

The plasma membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Students should know the proportion of membrane lipids and the types of membrane junctions.

• Lipid Bilayer: Phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins.

• Membrane Junctions:

  • Tight Junction – prevents leakage

  • Desmosome – anchoring junction

  • Gap Junction – communication channel

Membrane Transport

Transport across membranes can be passive or active. Students should distinguish between different transport mechanisms.

• Passive Diffusion: Movement down concentration gradient; no energy required.

• Facilitated Diffusion: Uses transport proteins; no energy required.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP); moves substances against gradient.

• Endocytosis: Cell engulfs material (includes phagocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis).

• Exocytosis: Cell expels material.

Osmotic Terms

Osmosis involves the movement of water; students should be able to label solutions as isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic.

• Isotonic: Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell.

• Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside; cell swells.

• Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside; cell shrinks.

Molecular Biology: Central Dogma

The central dogma describes the flow of genetic information in cells.

• DNA Transcription: DNA is transcribed to RNA.

• RNA Translation: RNA is translated to protein (polypeptide).

Central Dogma Equation:

$\text{DNA} \xrightarrow{\text{transcription}} \text{RNA} \xrightarrow{\text{translation}} \text{Protein/Polypeptide}$

Summary Table: Cell Membrane Junctions

The following table summarizes the main types of cell membrane junctions and their functions.

Junction Type	Function
Tight Junction	Watertight seal; prevents leakage
Desmosome	Anchoring junction; provides strength
Gap Junction	Communication tunnel; allows passage of ions and molecules

Summary Table: Membrane Transport Mechanisms

Transport Type	Energy Required?	Direction	Example
Passive Diffusion	No	Down gradient	Oxygen into cells
Facilitated Diffusion	No	Down gradient	Glucose transport
Active Transport	Yes (ATP)	Against gradient	Sodium-potassium pump
Osmosis	No	Water down gradient	Water movement in kidneys

Additional info: These foundational concepts are essential for success in Anatomy & Physiology and provide the basis for understanding more advanced topics.