Anatomy & Physiology: Cumulative Study Guide Notes

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Structure (anatomy) refers to the physical organization of body parts, while function (physiology) describes how those parts work.
Levels of organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment, essential for survival.
Feedback systems regulate homeostasis: negative feedback opposes change (e.g., body temperature), while positive feedback amplifies change (e.g., blood clotting).
Intracellular fluid is inside cells; extracellular fluid surrounds cells. Both are crucial for cellular function.

Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atomic number = protons; mass number = protons + neutrons.
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Electrons occupy energy levels; valence electrons determine chemical reactivity.
Chemical bonds: ionic bonds (transfer of electrons), covalent bonds (sharing electrons), hydrogen bonds (weak attractions between polar molecules).
Water is a polar molecule, essential for life, and forms hydrogen bonds.

Carbohydrates: energy source (e.g., glucose), structure (e.g., cellulose).
Lipids: energy storage (triglycerides), membrane structure (phospholipids), hormones (steroids).
Proteins: made of amino acids, function as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.
Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information.

Major parts: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles.
Plasma membrane: phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; controls entry/exit of substances.
Organelles: mitochondria (ATP production), ribosomes (protein synthesis), endoplasmic reticulum (protein/lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (modification and packaging), lysosomes (digestion), cytoskeleton (structure and movement).
Microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments provide structural support and facilitate movement.

Cell cycle phases: interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase), cytokinesis.
Mitosis ensures genetic continuity during cell division.

Bones consist of compact (dense) and spongy (cancellous) tissue.
Cells: osteoprogenitor cells (stem cells), osteoblasts (form bone), osteocytes (maintain bone), osteoclasts (break down bone).
Extracellular matrix: collagen fibers (flexibility), hydroxyapatite (strength).
Bone growth: length (epiphyseal plate), width (appositional growth).
Remodeling: continuous process of bone resorption and formation.
Hormones (parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, calcitriol) regulate blood calcium levels.

Catabolism: breakdown of molecules to release energy.
Anabolism: synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the main energy currency of the cell.
Cellular respiration: glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain.
Macronutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins; micronutrients: vitamins, minerals.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR): energy expended at rest.

Neurons: transmit electrical signals; parts include cell body, dendrites, axon.
Neuroglia: support and protect neurons.
Resting membrane potential: difference in charge across the membrane at rest.
Action potential: rapid change in membrane potential that propagates along the axon.
Key terms: depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, threshold, refractory period.
Synapse: junction between neurons; neurotransmitters transmit signals.

Sympathetic division: "fight or flight" responses; increases heart rate, dilates pupils.
Parasympathetic division: "rest and digest" responses; decreases heart rate, stimulates digestion.
Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons: two-neuron pathway from CNS to effector.
Neurotransmitters: acetylcholine (ACh), norepinephrine (NE).
Receptors: cholinergic (bind ACh), adrenergic (bind NE).

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.
Major glands: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads.
Hormones regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction, and homeostasis.
Feedback mechanisms control hormone levels (mainly negative feedback).
Disorders: hypersecretion (excess hormone), hyposecretion (deficient hormone).