Anatomy & Physiology Exam Review: Chapters 1–5 Study Guide

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Definitions and Relationships

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences in understanding the human body. Anatomy focuses on structure, while physiology emphasizes function.

• Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology: The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.

• Relationship: Structure determines function; anatomical features enable physiological processes.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Negative Feedback: A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: A mechanism that amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

Anatomical Terminology and Body Organization

• Body Positions and Sections: Use of standard anatomical terms (e.g., anterior, posterior, sagittal, transverse) to describe locations and planes.

• Body Cavities: Major cavities include cranial, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic; each contains specific organs.

• Serous Membranes: Thin membranes lining body cavities and covering organs (e.g., pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

Principle of Complementarity and Survival Needs

• Principle of Complementarity: Function always reflects structure; what a structure can do depends on its form.

• Survival Needs: Nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, and appropriate atmospheric pressure.

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry and Biochemistry

Basic Chemistry

• Matter vs. Energy: Matter has mass and occupies space; energy is the capacity to do work.

• Potential vs. Kinetic Energy: Potential energy is stored; kinetic energy is energy in action.

• Major Energy Forms: Chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant energy.

• Energy Conversions: Energy can change forms, often releasing heat.

Elements and Atoms

• Chemical Elements: Substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means. Four elements (C, H, O, N) make up most of the body.

• Atoms: Smallest units of elements, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus.

• Atomic Mass: Sum of protons and neutrons.

• Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

• Radioisotopes: Unstable isotopes that emit radiation.

Molecules, Compounds, and Mixtures

• Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.

• Compound: Two or more different atoms bonded together.

• Mixture: Physical combination of substances (solutions, colloids, suspensions).

Chemical Reactions

• Synthesis: Building larger molecules from smaller ones.

• Decomposition: Breaking down molecules into smaller units.

• Exchange: Involves both synthesis and decomposition.

Biochemistry

• Importance: Biochemistry explains the chemical basis of life and is essential for understanding anatomy and physiology.

• Water: Most abundant inorganic compound; vital for homeostasis.

• Acids and Bases: Acids release H+; bases release OH-. pH measures hydrogen ion concentration.

• Carbohydrates: Main energy source; building blocks are monosaccharides.

• Lipids: Energy storage, insulation, and cell membrane structure; building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol.

• Proteins: Structural and functional roles; made of amino acids. Enzymes are proteins that catalyze reactions.

• ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; main energy currency of the cell.

Chapter 3: The Cell

Cell Theory and Structure

• Cell Theory: All living things are composed of cells; cells are the basic unit of life.

• Extracellular Materials: Substances outside cells (e.g., interstitial fluid, blood plasma).

• Generalized Cell: Three major regions: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus.

Plasma Membrane and Transport

• Plasma Membrane: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins; regulates entry and exit of substances.

• Junctions: Tight junctions (impermeable), desmosomes (anchoring), gap junctions (communication).

• Passive Transport: No energy required (diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis).

• Active Transport: Requires energy (primary and secondary active transport).

• Endocytosis/Exocytosis: Bulk transport into/out of the cell.

Membrane Potential and Cell Extensions

• Membrane Potential: Voltage across the plasma membrane due to ion distribution.

• Cilia and Microvilli: Cilia move substances; microvilli increase surface area.

Cytoplasm and Organelles

• Cytosol: Fluid portion of cytoplasm.

• Organelles: Specialized structures (e.g., mitochondria, ribosomes, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton).

Genetics and Cell Cycle

• Gene: Segment of DNA coding for a protein.

• Genetic Code: Sequence of nucleotides specifying amino acid sequence.

• Cell Cycle: Interphase (G1, S, G2) and mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).

• DNA Replication: Process of copying DNA before cell division.

Chapter 4: Tissues

Types and Functions of Tissues

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues (e.g., areolar, adipose, reticular, dense regular/irregular, cartilage, bone, blood).

• Muscle Tissue: Produces movement (skeletal, cardiac, smooth).

• Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical impulses.

Glands and Membranes

• Exocrine Glands: Secrete products into ducts (e.g., sweat, oil glands).

• Endocrine Glands: Secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

• Membranes: Cutaneous (skin), mucous, serous membranes.

Micrographs and Tissue Identification

• Cell Types: Epithelial (simple squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudostratified, stratified), connective, muscle, nervous.

• Basal vs. Apical Surfaces: Basal attaches to basement membrane; apical faces lumen or surface.

Tissue Repair

• Process: Involves inflammation, organization, and regeneration/fibrosis.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Skin Structure and Function

• Layers of Skin: Epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium), dermis (connective tissue), subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis).

• Major Layers of Epidermis: Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (thick skin), corneum.

• Major Layers of Dermis: Papillary and reticular layers.

Skin Color and Clinical Significance

• Factors Affecting Skin Color: Melanin, carotene, hemoglobin.

• Clinical Signs: Changes in skin color can indicate disease (e.g., cyanosis, jaundice).

Accessory Structures

• Hair: Parts include shaft, root, follicle; arrector pili muscle causes hair to stand.

• Nails: Protect distal phalanges.

• Sweat Glands: Eccrine (thermoregulation), apocrine (axillary/genital areas).

• Oil Glands (Sebaceous): Secrete sebum for lubrication.

Functions of the Skin

• Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, metabolic functions, blood reservoir, excretion.

Skin Cancer and Burns

• Skin Cancers: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma.

• Burns: Classified by depth (first, second, third degree); serious burns can be life-threatening due to fluid loss and infection.

Table: Comparison of Major Gland Types

Gland Type	Location	Secretion	Function
Eccrine Sweat	Widespread (palms, soles, forehead)	Watery, hypotonic fluid	Thermoregulation
Apocrine Sweat	Axillary, genital areas	Viscous, milky fluid	Unknown, may be scent
Sebaceous (Oil)	All over except palms/soles	Sebum (oily)	Lubricates skin/hair

Burn Classification Table

Degree	Layers Affected	Symptoms
First	Epidermis	Redness, pain, no blisters
Second	Epidermis, part of dermis	Redness, pain, blisters
Third	Full thickness (epidermis, dermis, possibly deeper)	No pain (nerve endings destroyed), white/charred appearance

Additional info: Students should practice labeling anatomical diagrams and histological images for exam preparation.