Anatomy & Physiology Exam Review: Key Concepts and Structures

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Defining Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology is the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.

• Relationship: Structure determines function; understanding anatomy is essential for understanding physiology.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.

• Negative Feedback: A process that reduces or shuts off the original stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: A process that enhances or amplifies the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

Anatomical Terms and Body Organization

• Use anatomical terms to describe or label body positions (e.g., anterior, posterior, superior, inferior) and sections (e.g., sagittal, frontal, transverse).

• Body cavities include the dorsal cavity (cranial and vertebral) and ventral cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic).

• Serous membranes line body cavities and cover organs, providing lubrication and protection.

Principle of Complementarity

• Function always reflects structure; what a structure can do depends on its specific form.

• Functional characteristics necessary for life include maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth.

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry and Biochemistry

Matter and Energy

• Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

• Energy is the capacity to do work; it exists as potential energy (stored) and kinetic energy (active).

• Major forms of energy: chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant.

• Energy conversions in the body often release heat.

Chemical Elements and Atoms

• Chemical elements are substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means.

• Four elements form the bulk of body matter: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N).

• Atoms are the smallest units of elements, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Atomic number: number of protons; atomic mass: sum of protons and neutrons; isotopes: atoms with same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Chemical Compounds and Reactions

• Molecules are two or more atoms bonded together; compounds are molecules of different elements.

• Mixtures include solutions, colloids, and suspensions.

• Three major types of chemical reactions: synthesis (building), decomposition (breaking down), and exchange (rearranging).

Biochemistry

• Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living organisms; essential for understanding anatomy and physiology.

• Water is vital for body homeostasis due to its solvent properties, high heat capacity, and role in chemical reactions.

• Acids and bases regulate pH; pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration.

• Carbohydrates: building blocks are monosaccharides; provide energy and structural support.

• Lipids: building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol; function in energy storage and cell membranes.

• Proteins: building blocks are amino acids; serve structural, enzymatic, and regulatory roles.

• Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.

• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.

Chapter 3: Cells and Cell Theory

Cell Structure and Function

• Cell theory: All living things are composed of cells; cells are the basic unit of life.

• Extracellular materials include fluids and matrix substances outside cells.

• Three major regions of a generalized cell: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.

Plasma Membrane and Transport

• Plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; regulates entry and exit of substances.

• Junctions: tight junctions (prevent leakage), desmosomes (anchor cells), gap junctions (allow communication).

• Passive transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis.

• Active transport: primary (direct use of ATP) and secondary (indirect use of ATP).

• Endocytosis and exocytosis: processes for bulk transport into and out of cells.

Membrane Potential and Cell Extensions

• Membrane potential is the voltage across the cell membrane, established by ion gradients.

• Cilia and microvilli are cell extensions; cilia move substances, microvilli increase surface area.

Cytosol and Organelles

• Cytosol is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm.

• Organelles include mitochondria (energy production), ribosomes (protein synthesis), endoplasmic reticulum (protein and lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (modification and packaging), lysosomes (digestion), peroxisomes (detoxification), and cytoskeletal elements (structure and movement).

Genetics and Cell Cycle

• Gene: a segment of DNA coding for a protein.

• Genetic code: sequence of nucleotides that determines protein synthesis.

• Cell cycle phases: G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (preparation for division), M (mitosis).

• DNA replication ensures genetic continuity during cell division.

Chapter 4: Tissues and Histology

Tissue Types and Functions

• Four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

• Epithelial tissue: covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands.

• Connective tissue: supports, protects, binds other tissues.

• Muscle tissue: responsible for movement (skeletal, cardiac, smooth).

• Nervous tissue: transmits electrical impulses.

Glands and Membranes

• Exocrine glands secrete products into ducts; endocrine glands secrete hormones into blood.

• Cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes line and protect body surfaces and cavities.

Connective Tissue Types

• Loose connective tissue: areolar, adipose, reticular.

• Dense connective tissue: regular, irregular, elastic.

• Cartilage: hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage.

• Bone and blood are specialized connective tissues.

Micrographs and Cell Layers

• Epithelial cell layers: simple (one layer), stratified (multiple layers), pseudostratified.

• Basal and apical surfaces distinguish epithelial cell orientation.

Tissue Repair

• Tissue repair involves inflammation, organization, and regeneration of superficial wounds.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Skin Structure and Function

• Two layers: epidermis (outer) and dermis (inner); subcutaneous tissue lies beneath the dermis.

• Epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelial tissue.

• Major layers of epidermis: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (in thick skin), stratum corneum.

• Dermis contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and glands.

Skin Color and Clinical Signs

• Factors affecting skin color: melanin, carotene, hemoglobin.

• Changes in skin color can indicate disease (e.g., cyanosis, jaundice).

Hair and Nails

• Parts of a hair follicle: shaft, root, bulb, arrector pili muscle (causes hair to stand up).

• Nails are protective coverings composed of keratin.

Glands of the Skin

• Sudoriferous (sweat) glands: eccrine (thermoregulation) and apocrine (odor).

• Sebaceous (oil) glands: secrete sebum for lubrication.

• Compare composition and function of sweat and oil glands.

Functions of the Skin

• Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, metabolic functions, blood reservoir, excretion.

Skin Cancer and Burns

• Three major types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma.

• Serious burns are life-threatening due to fluid loss and infection.

• Burns are classified by depth: first-degree (epidermis), second-degree (epidermis and part of dermis), third-degree (full thickness).

Practice and Application

• Practice labeling anatomical images and structures for exam preparation.