Anatomy & Physiology Exam Study Guide: Skin, Skeletal, and Muscular Systems

Exam Overview

This study guide outlines the key topics and concepts for an Anatomy & Physiology exam covering the integumentary, skeletal, and muscular systems. The guide is organized by textbook chapters and provides a structured review of essential material.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Skin Structure and Function

• Tissue Types: The skin is composed of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer, primarily epithelial tissue) and the dermis (deeper layer, primarily connective tissue). The hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) lies beneath the dermis and consists mainly of adipose tissue.

• Primary Functions: Protection, sensation, thermoregulation, excretion, and synthesis of vitamin D.

Layers of the Epidermis and Dermis

• Epidermis Layers: (from superficial to deep)

  • Stratum corneum

  • Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)

  • Stratum granulosum

  • Stratum spinosum

  • Stratum basale

• Dermis Layers: Papillary layer (areolar connective tissue) and reticular layer (dense irregular connective tissue).

• Functions: The epidermis provides a barrier and creates skin tone; the dermis supports and nourishes the epidermis, contains blood vessels, nerves, and appendages.

Hypodermis

• Structure: Composed mainly of adipose tissue.

• Function: Insulation, energy storage, and cushioning.

Hair and Nails

• Hair: Made of keratinized cells; functions include protection, sensation, and thermoregulation.

• Nails: Protect the distal phalanx and enhance sensation.

• Hair Follicle Parts: Bulb, root, shaft; each part has a specific function in hair growth and structure.

Glands of the Skin

• Types: Sebaceous (oil) glands, eccrine (merocrine) sweat glands, apocrine sweat glands.

• Functions: Sebaceous glands secrete sebum for lubrication; eccrine glands regulate temperature; apocrine glands are associated with scent.

• Comparison Table:

Gland Type	Secretion	Location	Function
Sebaceous	Sebum (oil)	All over skin except palms/soles	Lubricates skin/hair
Eccrine	Watery sweat	Most of body	Thermoregulation
Apocrine	Viscous sweat	Axillae, groin	Scent, emotional sweating

Skin Color and Factors

• Factors: Melanin, carotene, hemoglobin, genetics, and environmental exposure.

Burns and Skin Cancer

• Burn Degrees:

  • First-degree: Epidermis only; redness, pain.

  • Second-degree: Epidermis and part of dermis; blisters, severe pain.

  • Third-degree: Full thickness; destroys both layers, may be painless due to nerve damage.

• Life Threat: Fluid loss, infection, and shock are major risks.

• Skin Cancer Types: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma.

• Cell Type and Appearance: Each cancer arises from different skin cells and has distinct characteristics and malignancy risk.

Chapter 6: The Skeletal System - Cartilage and Bone

Cartilage

• Properties: Flexible connective tissue; avascular; types include hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage.

• Growth: Appositional (surface) and interstitial (within tissue).

Bone Tissue

• Types of Bone: Compact (dense) and spongy (cancellous).

• Bone Cells: Osteoblasts (build bone), osteocytes (maintain bone), osteoclasts (break down bone).

• Bone Development: Intramembranous ossification (flat bones) and endochondral ossification (long bones).

• Bone Healing: Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus, bony callus, bone remodeling.

• Bone Fractures: Types include simple, compound, comminuted, greenstick, etc.

• Bone Diseases: Osteoporosis, osteomalacia, Paget's disease.

Chapter 7: The Axial Skeleton

Skull and Vertebral Column

• Foramina/Foramen: Openings in the skull for nerves and blood vessels.

• Intervertebral Discs: Fibrocartilage pads between vertebrae for cushioning and flexibility.

• Vertebral Movements: Flexion, extension, rotation, lateral bending.

• Fetal Skull: Fontanelles allow for growth and birth.

• Axial Skeleton Disorders: Scoliosis, kyphosis, lordosis, herniated disc.

Chapter 8: The Appendicular Skeleton

• Appendicular Skeleton: Bones of the limbs and girdles.

• Disorders: Fractures, dislocations, arthritis.

• Changes Throughout Life: Bone density and structure change with age.

Chapter 9: Joints (Articulations)

Classification and Properties

• Structural Classes: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.

• Synovial Joints: Most movable; contain synovial fluid, articular cartilage, joint capsule.

• Components: Ligaments, tendons, bursae, menisci.

• Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction.

Selected Synovial Joints

• Temporomandibular joint (jaw)

• Sternoclavicular joint

• Glenohumeral joint (shoulder)

• Elbow joint

• Hip joint

• Knee joint

• Disorders: Arthritis, dislocations, ligament injuries

Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue

Muscle Types and Properties

• Types: Skeletal (voluntary, striated), cardiac (involuntary, striated), smooth (involuntary, non-striated).

• Functions: Movement, posture, heat production.

Skeletal Muscle Structure

• Muscle Fiber Anatomy: Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, myofibrils, sarcomeres.

• Contraction: Sliding filament model; actin and myosin filaments slide past each other.

• Neuromuscular Junction: Site where motor neuron stimulates muscle fiber.

• Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers: Slow-twitch (Type I), fast-twitch (Type IIa, IIb).

• Disorders: Muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis, muscle strains.

Key Equation: Muscle Contraction

• The force generated by a muscle can be described as: $F = m \cdot a$ where F is force, m is mass, and a is acceleration. Additional info: This is Newton's second law, relevant for understanding muscle force output.