Anatomy & Physiology: Foundational Concepts and Cellular Structure

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Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
Physiology is the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.
Subdivisions of Anatomy include gross (macroscopic), microscopic, and developmental anatomy.
Complementarity of Structure and Function: Structure determines function; physiological processes are explained by the underlying anatomy.

Key Functions: Maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth.
Maintaining Boundaries: Separation of internal and external environments (e.g., skin, cell membranes).

Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body, including catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (synthesis).
Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli (e.g., withdrawal reflex).

Major Body Systems: Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.
Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.
Feedback Systems: Negative feedback reduces the effect of the stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation); positive feedback enhances the stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

Basic Needs: Nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate atmospheric pressure.

Main Elements in the Body: Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen.
Subatomic Particles: Protons (positive, in nucleus), neutrons (neutral, in nucleus), electrons (negative, in orbitals).
Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus.
Mass Number: Sum of protons and neutrons.

Compound: Two or more different atoms chemically bonded.
Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together (can be same or different elements).
Mixture: Physical combination of substances (not chemically bonded).
Colloid: Heterogeneous mixture with particles that do not settle.
Solution: Homogeneous mixture with solute dissolved in solvent.
Suspension: Heterogeneous mixture with large particles that settle out.

Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons between atoms.
Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons between atoms.
Hydrogen Bond: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another electronegative atom.
Synthesis Reaction: Atoms or molecules combine to form a larger molecule ().
Decomposition Reaction: Molecule is broken down into smaller molecules ().
Exchange Reaction: Bonds are both made and broken ().
Endergonic Reaction: Absorbs energy.
Exergonic Reaction: Releases energy.

Water: Universal solvent, high heat capacity, important for chemical reactions.
Acid: Releases H+ ions in solution.
Base: Accepts H+ ions or releases OH- ions.
Salt: Ionic compound formed from acid-base reaction.
pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration; .

Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides; main energy source.
Lipids: Triglycerides (energy storage), phospholipids (cell membranes), steroids (hormones).
Proteins: Made of amino acids; functions include enzymes, structure, transport.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information.

Enzyme: Biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.
Denaturation: Loss of protein structure and function due to environmental changes (e.g., pH, temperature).

Cytology: Study of cells.
Histology: Study of tissues.
Major Cell Components: Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus.
Plasma Membrane: Composed of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; regulates entry and exit of substances.

Passive Transport: No energy required; includes diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis.
Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP); moves substances against concentration gradient.
Simple Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
Facilitated Diffusion: Uses carrier or channel proteins.
Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Isotonic Solution: No net movement of water.
Hypertonic Solution: Water moves out of cell; cell shrinks.
Hypotonic Solution: Water moves into cell; cell swells.
Primary Active Transport: Direct use of ATP (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).
Secondary Active Transport: Uses energy from ion gradients.
Endocytosis: Cell takes in material by vesicle formation.
Exocytosis: Cell expels material by vesicle fusion with membrane.
Membrane Potential: Voltage difference across the plasma membrane.

Major Organelles: Nucleus (genetic control), mitochondria (ATP production), endoplasmic reticulum (protein/lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (modification and packaging), lysosomes (digestion), peroxisomes (detoxification).
Cilia: Move substances across cell surface.
Microvilli: Increase surface area for absorption.
Flagella: Propel the cell (e.g., sperm cell).

DNA Replication: Process of copying DNA before cell division.
Mitosis: Division of the nucleus; phases include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
mRNA: Messenger RNA; carries genetic code from DNA to ribosome.
tRNA: Transfer RNA; brings amino acids to ribosome during protein synthesis.
rRNA: Ribosomal RNA; forms part of ribosome structure.
Transcription: Synthesis of mRNA from DNA template.
Translation: Synthesis of protein from mRNA template.