Anatomy & Physiology: Foundational Concepts and Cellular Structure

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Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
Physiology: The study of the function of body parts and how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities.
Planes of the Body: Imaginary lines used to divide the body into sections (e.g., sagittal, transverse, frontal/coronal).
Directional Terms: Terms used to describe the locations of structures (e.g., superior, inferior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, ventral, dorsal).
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.
Feedback Mechanisms: Processes that help maintain homeostasis, including positive and negative feedback.
Anatomical Landmarks: Reference points on the body used to describe locations or regions.

Difference between Anatomy and Physiology: Anatomy focuses on structure; physiology focuses on function.
Structure-Function Relationship: The form of a body part is closely related to its function. For example, the shape of red blood cells allows them to efficiently transport oxygen.
Levels of Organization: The human body is organized from atoms to molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the organism.
Body Cavities and Membranes: The body contains various cavities (e.g., thoracic, abdominal) lined by membranes (e.g., parietal, visceral) that protect and support organs.
Planes and Directions: Understanding anatomical planes and directional terms is essential for describing locations and movements.
Homeostasis and Feedback: Negative feedback mechanisms counteract changes (e.g., temperature regulation), while positive feedback amplifies changes (e.g., blood clotting).

When body temperature rises, negative feedback mechanisms (such as sweating) help return it to normal.

Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
Hydrogen Bond: A weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction.
Electrolyte: A substance that produces ions when dissolved in water and conducts electricity.
pH: A measure of hydrogen ion concentration; indicates acidity or alkalinity.
Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that determine the chemical properties of those molecules (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino).

Covalent vs. Ionic vs. Hydrogen Bonds: Covalent bonds involve electron sharing, ionic bonds involve electron transfer, and hydrogen bonds are weak attractions important in biological molecules.
Electrolytes in Physiology: Electrolytes are crucial for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction.
Acids, Bases, and pH: Acids release hydrogen ions (), bases accept them. pH is calculated as .
Functional Groups: Seven common functional groups include hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, methyl, carbonyl, and sulfhydryl.

Water () is a polar molecule, allowing it to dissolve many substances and facilitate chemical reactions in the body.

Cell Membrane: The semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell.
Active Transport: The movement of substances across cell membranes using energy.
Diffusion: The passive movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration.
Osmosis: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Endocytosis/Exocytosis: Processes by which cells take in (endocytosis) or release (exocytosis) large molecules.
DNA/RNA: Nucleic acids that store and transmit genetic information.
ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy carrier in cells.

Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the structure of the cell membrane as a mosaic of proteins floating in or on the fluid lipid bilayer.
Cellular Organelles: Structures within cells (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes) that perform specific functions.
Transport Mechanisms: Includes passive (diffusion, osmosis) and active (pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis) transport.
DNA vs. RNA: DNA stores genetic information; RNA is involved in protein synthesis. DNA is double-stranded; RNA is usually single-stranded.
Protein Synthesis: Involves transcription (DNA to RNA) and translation (RNA to protein).
Osmotic Pressure and Tonicity: Determines the movement of water in and out of cells. Solutions can be isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic.
ATP Function: ATP provides energy for cellular processes.

Red blood cells placed in a hypotonic solution will swell as water enters the cell.

Feature	DNA	RNA
Strands	Double-stranded	Single-stranded
Sugar	Deoxyribose	Ribose
Bases	A, T, C, G	A, U, C, G
Function	Genetic information storage	Protein synthesis

Some content was inferred and expanded for academic completeness, such as definitions and examples.