BackAnatomy & Physiology: Foundations and Body Chemistry Study Guide
Study Guide - Smart Notes
Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.
Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
Definitions and Subdivisions
Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Subdivisions include gross anatomy (macroscopic structures), microscopic anatomy (cells and tissues), and developmental anatomy (structural changes throughout life).
Physiology: The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery. Subdivisions include cellular physiology, systemic physiology, and pathophysiology (disease states).
Complementarity of Structure and Function
Structure and function are closely related; the function of a body part depends on its structure. This is known as the principle of complementarity.
Example: Bones can support and protect body organs because they contain hard mineral deposits.
Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical level: Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level: Cells are made up of molecules.
Tissue level: Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
Organ level: Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
Organ system level: Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
Organismal level: The human organism is made up of many organ systems.
Major Body Systems: Functions and Components
Integumentary: Protects body, regulates temperature (skin, hair, nails).
Skeletal: Supports and protects organs, stores minerals (bones, joints).
Muscular: Movement, posture, heat production (muscles).
Nervous: Fast-acting control system (brain, spinal cord, nerves).
Endocrine: Hormone production, regulation (glands such as thyroid, pancreas).
Cardiovascular: Transports blood (heart, blood vessels).
Lymphatic/Immune: Defends against infection (lymph nodes, spleen).
Respiratory: Gas exchange (lungs, trachea).
Digestive: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients (stomach, intestines).
Urinary: Eliminates waste, regulates water (kidneys, bladder).
Reproductive: Produces offspring (ovaries, testes).
Functional Characteristics Necessary for Life
Maintaining boundaries
Movement
Responsiveness
Digestion
Metabolism
Excretion
Reproduction
Growth
Survival Needs of the Human Body
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Normal body temperature
Appropriate atmospheric pressure
Homeostasis
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.
Essential for normal body functioning and sustaining life.
Feedback Mechanisms
Negative feedback: Reduces the effect of the original stimulus (e.g., regulation of body temperature).
Positive feedback: Enhances the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).
Anatomical Position and Terminology
Anatomical position: Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs pointing away from the body.
Directional terms: Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.
Body planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse.
Surface anatomy landmarks: Used to describe locations on the body.
Body Cavities and Serous Membranes
Dorsal cavity: Cranial and vertebral cavities (contains brain and spinal cord).
Ventral cavity: Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities (contains heart, lungs, digestive organs, etc.).
Serous membranes: Thin, double-layered membranes (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum) lining body cavities and covering organs.
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
Four quadrants: Right upper, left upper, right lower, left lower.
Nine regions: Right/left hypochondriac, epigastric, right/left lumbar, umbilical, right/left iliac, hypogastric.
Each region/quadrant contains specific organs (e.g., liver in right upper quadrant).
Body Chemistry
Basic Chemical Concepts
Chemical element: Substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means.
Atomic number: Number of protons in an atom.
Atomic mass: Total number of protons and neutrons.
Atomic weight: Average mass of all isotopes of an element.
Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Radioisotope: Isotope with an unstable nucleus that emits radiation.
Anabolism: Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones.
Catabolism: Breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones.
Major Energy Forms
Chemical energy: Stored in bonds of chemical substances.
Electrical energy: Movement of charged particles.
Mechanical energy: Directly involved in moving matter.
Radiant energy: Energy that travels in waves (e.g., light).
Elements of the Human Body
Four elements make up about 96% of body mass: Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N).
Atoms and Subatomic Particles
Atom: Smallest unit of an element.
Subatomic particles: Protons (positive charge), neutrons (neutral), electrons (negative charge).
Molecules, Compounds, and Mixtures
Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.
Compound: Molecule containing two or more different elements.
Mixture: Physical combination of substances; components retain their properties.
Types of mixtures: Solutions (homogeneous), colloids (heterogeneous, do not settle), suspensions (heterogeneous, particles settle).
Chemical Bonding and the Octet Rule
Electrons in the outer shell (valence electrons) determine chemical bonding.
Octet rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve eight electrons in their valence shell.
Types of Chemical Bonds
Ionic bonds: Transfer of electrons between atoms.
Covalent bonds: Sharing of electrons between atoms.
Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.
Polar vs. Nonpolar Compounds
Nonpolar compounds: Electrons shared equally; no charge separation.
Polar compounds: Electrons shared unequally; partial charges develop.
Chemical Reactions
Synthesis reactions: Atoms/molecules combine to form larger molecules ().
Decomposition reactions: Molecules broken down into smaller components ().
Exchange reactions: Bonds are both made and broken ().
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
Involve transfer of electrons between atoms/molecules.
Oxidation: Loss of electrons.
Reduction: Gain of electrons.
Factors Affecting Chemical Reaction Rates
Temperature (higher increases rate)
Concentration of reactants
Particle size (smaller increases rate)
Presence of catalysts (e.g., enzymes)
Water and Salts in Homeostasis
Water: Universal solvent, high heat capacity, important for chemical reactions.
Salts: Ionic compounds that dissociate in water; important for nerve and muscle function.
Acids, Bases, and pH
Acid: Releases hydrogen ions () in solution.
Base: Accepts hydrogen ions or releases hydroxide ions ().
pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration; scale from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic).
Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis
Dehydration synthesis: Removal of water to form a bond between molecules.
Hydrolysis: Addition of water to break a bond.
Biological Macromolecules
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides, polysaccharides; energy source.
Lipids: Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids; energy storage, cell membranes.
Proteins: Amino acids; structure, enzymes, transport.
Nucleic acids: DNA, RNA; genetic information.
Protein Structure and Denaturation
Primary structure: Sequence of amino acids.
Secondary structure: Alpha helices and beta sheets.
Tertiary structure: 3D folding of a single polypeptide.
Quaternary structure: Association of multiple polypeptides.
Denaturation: Loss of structure and function due to environmental changes.
Enzymes
Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.
Highly specific for substrates.
DNA vs. RNA
DNA: Double-stranded, deoxyribose sugar, stores genetic information.
RNA: Single-stranded, ribose sugar, involved in protein synthesis.
ATP: Structure and Function
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): Main energy currency of the cell.
Composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups.
Energy released by breaking the terminal phosphate bond:
