Anatomy & Physiology I: Comprehensive Study Guide

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, while physiology is the study of the function of those parts.
Organ systems can be identified based on their primary functions or the major organs they contain (e.g., the digestive system includes the stomach and intestines).
Directional terms are used to describe the location of body parts: proximal (closer to the point of attachment), superficial (toward the surface), medial (toward the midline), etc.
The body is divided into cavities (e.g., ventral body cavity contains thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities).
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. The homeostatic control mechanism typically involves a three-part system: receptor, control center, and effector.
Feedback systems can be positive (amplifying changes) or negative (counteracting changes).
The abdominopelvic region is divided into nine regions for anatomical reference.
Body planes include sagittal, frontal (coronal), and transverse planes.

Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form proteins.
Atoms are composed of protons (positive), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (negative).
The atomic number is determined by the number of protons; atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons.
There are three types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.
Carbohydrates include monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), and polysaccharides (glycogen).
Saturated fats have no double bonds between carbon atoms; unsaturated fats have one or more double bonds.
The four major classes of organic compounds are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Nucleotides are the building blocks of DNA and RNA.
The pH scale measures acidity or basicity; acids have pH < 7, bases have pH > 7.
The strength of an acid or base is determined by its degree of ionization in water.

Cell organelles include the nucleus (genetic control), mitochondria (energy production), endoplasmic reticulum (protein/lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (modification and packaging), lysosomes (digestion), and more.
Each organelle has a specific function essential for cell survival and activity.

The four basic tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and lines cavities; classified by cell shape and layers (e.g., simple squamous, stratified cuboidal).
Connective tissue supports and binds other tissues; includes tendons (dense regular connective tissue) and ligaments.
Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction; types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
Nervous tissue is specialized for communication via electrical impulses.

The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails, and glands.
The skin is composed of the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer).
The epidermis has several layers: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (in thick skin), and corneum.
The dermis contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and accessory structures.
Keratinocytes produce keratin; melanocytes produce melanin.
Accessory structures include hair follicles, sebaceous glands (oil), and sweat glands (eccrine and apocrine).
The ABCDE rule is used to identify malignant melanomas: Asymmetry, Border, Color, Diameter, Evolving.

Bones contain various cell types: osteocytes (mature bone cells), osteoblasts (bone-forming), osteoclasts (bone-resorbing).
An osteon is the structural unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric lamellae around a central canal.
The periosteum (outer membrane) and endosteum (inner membrane) cover bone surfaces.
Red bone marrow produces blood cells; yellow bone marrow stores fat.
Bone fractures are classified by type (e.g., simple, compound, comminuted).
The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage; the appendicular skeleton includes limbs and girdles.
The skull is composed of cranial and facial bones; the vertebral column has cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions.
The sternum and pelvis are each formed by the fusion of three bones.
Joints (articulations) are classified by structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and function (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis).
Synovial joints allow free movement; types include hinge, ball-and-socket, pivot, etc.

Three types of muscle tissue: skeletal (voluntary, striated), cardiac (involuntary, striated), smooth (involuntary, non-striated).
Skeletal muscle is organized into epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, and endomysium.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions for muscle contraction.
Neuromuscular junction is the site where a motor neuron stimulates a muscle fiber.
Key ions in muscle contraction: sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+).
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that initiates muscle contraction.
Isotonic contractions produce movement; isometric contractions increase tension without movement.
Creatine phosphate provides a rapid source of energy for muscle contraction.
Lactic acid is produced during anaerobic respiration and contributes to muscle fatigue.

The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord; the peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes cranial and spinal nerves.
The brain is divided into major regions: cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem.
Dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord carry sensory and motor information, respectively.
Plexuses are networks of nerves in the PNS (e.g., sciatic nerve).
Neuroglia support and protect neurons; types include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.
Resting potential, depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization describe changes in neuron membrane voltage during action potentials.
A synapse is the junction between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) has sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) divisions.
The brainstem controls vital functions; cranial nerves have specific sensory and motor functions.
Lateralization refers to functional differences between the brain's hemispheres.

Rods and cones are photoreceptors in the retina; rods detect light intensity, cones detect color.
The optic disc is the blind spot where the optic nerve exits the eye.
Accessory eye structures include the conjunctiva, lacrimal glands, etc.
The pharyngotympanic tube (Eustachian tube) equalizes pressure between the middle ear and pharynx.
The ear is divided into external, middle, and inner ear; each contains structures for hearing and equilibrium.
Sensory receptors for equilibrium are located in the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear.