Anatomy & Physiology Lab Study Guide: Blood, Heart, Endocrine, and Microscopy

Blood Typing and Blood Properties

Blood Typing

Blood typing is a laboratory procedure used to determine an individual's blood group based on the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells. This is essential for safe blood transfusions and organ transplants.

• Blood Type Determination: Involves mixing blood samples with antibodies to observe agglutination reactions.

• Antigens and Antibodies:

  • Antigens: Proteins found on the surface of red blood cells (e.g., A, B, Rh).

  • Antibodies: Proteins in plasma that react against foreign antigens.

• Donor and Recipient Compatibility:

  • Blood transfusions require matching donor and recipient blood types to prevent immune reactions.

  • Type O is the universal donor; Type AB is the universal recipient.

Example: If a person has type A blood, their red blood cells have A antigens and their plasma contains anti-B antibodies.

Respiratory Volumes

Respiratory volumes refer to the different measurements of air movement during breathing. These are important for assessing lung function.

• Tidal Volume (TV): The amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.

• Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): The additional air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.

• Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): The additional air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.

• Residual Volume (RV): The air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation.

Formula:

$\text{Vital Capacity (VC)} = \text{TV} + \text{IRV} + \text{ERV}$

Models Used in Anatomy & Physiology Lab

Endocrine System Flat Model

This model displays the major glands of the endocrine system, including the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas. It is used to study hormone production and regulation.

• Pituitary Gland: Master gland controlling other endocrine glands.

• Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism.

• Adrenal Glands: Produce stress hormones (e.g., cortisol, adrenaline).

• Pancreas: Regulates blood glucose via insulin and glucagon.

Thoracic Cavity and Circulatory System Models

Models of the thoracic cavity and circulatory system help visualize the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels.

• Heart Model: Shows chambers, valves, and major vessels.

• Blood Vessel Models: Used to trace blood flow and identify arteries and veins.

• Respiratory System Model: Illustrates the trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

Preserved Materials: Sheep Heart

Sheep Heart Anatomy

The sheep heart is used to study mammalian heart structure and blood flow. It is similar to the human heart in anatomy and function.

• Major Structures:

  • Left atrium, right atrium

  • Left ventricle, right ventricle

  • Pulmonary trunk, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava

  • Aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves

  • Tricuspid and mitral (bicuspid) valves

  • Chordae tendineae, papillary muscles

  • Interventricular septum

  • Coronary sulcus, apex

  • Pulmonary veins

• Blood Flow Sequence: Students may be asked to describe the order of blood flow through the heart, starting from the vena cava to the aorta.

Example: Blood enters the right atrium from the vena cava, passes through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, then through the pulmonary valve to the pulmonary trunk.

Microscope Slides: Histology

Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland is divided into anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis) regions, each with distinct cell types and functions.

• Adenohypophysis: Produces hormones such as growth hormone, ACTH, and TSH.

• Neurohypophysis: Stores and releases oxytocin and ADH.

Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland consists of follicles lined by simple cuboidal epithelium, which produce thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).

• Follicular Cells: Synthesize thyroid hormones.

• Colloid: Stores precursor of thyroid hormones.

Pancreas

The pancreas contains both endocrine and exocrine tissues.

• Islets of Langerhans: Endocrine cells producing insulin and glucagon.

• Acinar Cells: Exocrine cells producing digestive enzymes.

Adrenal Glands

The adrenal gland is composed of the cortex and medulla, each with distinct functions.

• Cortex: Produces corticosteroids (e.g., cortisol, aldosterone).

• Medulla: Produces catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline).

Human Blood Smear

Blood smears are used to identify and count different types of blood cells.

• Erythrocytes: Red blood cells, transport oxygen.

• Thrombocytes: Platelets, involved in clotting.

• Leukocytes: White blood cells, immune defense. Types include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils.

Artery and Vein Structure

Microscopic examination reveals differences in the structure of arteries and veins.

• Tunica Intima: Innermost layer, endothelial cells.

• Tunica Media: Middle layer, smooth muscle.

• Tunica Externa: Outer layer, connective tissue.

Summary Table: Blood Cell Types

This table summarizes the main types of blood cells and their functions.

Cell Type	Function	Relative Abundance
Erythrocytes	Oxygen transport	Most abundant
Thrombocytes	Blood clotting	Less abundant
Neutrophils	Phagocytosis of bacteria	Most common leukocyte
Lymphocytes	Immune response	Second most common leukocyte
Monocytes	Phagocytosis, become macrophages	Third most common leukocyte
Eosinophils	Defense against parasites	Less common
Basophils	Release histamine	Least common

Additional info: Academic context and definitions have been expanded for clarity and completeness.