Anatomy & Physiology Midterm Study Guide

Chapter 1: The Human Body

Anatomy vs. Physiology

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology is the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery—how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities.

• Example: Studying the chambers of the heart (anatomy) vs. understanding how the heart pumps blood (physiology).

Levels of Organization

• Chemical level (atoms, molecules)

• Cellular level (cells and their organelles)

• Tissue level (groups of similar cells)

• Organ level (contains two or more types of tissues)

• Organ system level (organs that work closely together)

• Organismal level (all organ systems combined)

Body Systems

• Major systems include: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.

Requirements for Life & Survival Needs

• Necessary life functions: maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth.

• Survival needs: nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate atmospheric pressure.

Homeostasis

• Definition: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes.

• Involves receptor (senses change), control center (processes information), effector (responds to change).

• Example: Regulation of body temperature.

Anatomical Position and Directional Terms

• Standard anatomical position: body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs point away from body.

• Directional terms: superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.

Planes, Cavities, Regions, Quadrants

• Body planes: sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse (horizontal).

• Body cavities: dorsal (cranial, vertebral), ventral (thoracic, abdominopelvic).

• Abdominal regions and quadrants: used for anatomical reference.

Serosa

• Serous membranes line body cavities and cover organs; include parietal and visceral layers.

Biology Review

DNA to Protein

• Central dogma: DNA → RNA → Protein.

• Transcription (DNA to mRNA), Translation (mRNA to protein).

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

• Mitosis: Cell division producing two identical diploid cells for growth and repair.

• Meiosis: Cell division producing four genetically unique haploid gametes for reproduction.

Cell Transport

• Movement of substances across cell membranes: diffusion, osmosis, active transport, facilitated diffusion.

Chapter 4: Tissues (Histology)

4 Types of Body Tissues

• Epithelial (covering)

• Connective (support)

• Muscle (movement)

• Nervous (control)

Epithelial Tissues

• Simple vs. stratified (layers)

• Shapes: squamous, cuboidal, columnar

• Special types: pseudostratified, transitional

• Functions: protection, absorption, filtration, secretion

Structure & Function of Epithelial Tissue

• Apical surface (free), basal surface (attached to basement membrane)

• Avascular but innervated; high regenerative capacity

Connective Tissue

• Most abundant and widely distributed tissue type

• Functions: support, protection, insulation, storage, transport

• Types: loose (areolar, adipose, reticular), dense (regular, irregular, elastic), cartilage, bone, blood

• Cells: fibroblasts, chondrocytes, osteocytes, adipocytes, blood cells

• Matrix: ground substance, fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular)

Muscle Tissue

• Types: skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (heart), smooth (walls of hollow organs)

• Functions: movement, posture, heat production

Nervous Tissue

• Main cell types: neurons (transmit impulses), neuroglia (support cells)

• Function: communication and control of body functions

Integumentary System

Layers of the Skin

• Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (deepest, subcutaneous)

• Epidermal layers (superficial to deep): stratum corneum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale

Melanocytes

• Cells in the epidermis that produce melanin, the pigment responsible for skin color and UV protection.

Appendages of the Skin

• Hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands

Nail Anatomy

• Parts: nail plate, nail bed, cuticle, lunula, matrix

Skeletal System

Functions of the Skeletal System

• Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

Bone Shapes

• Irregular, short, long, sesamoid, flat

Long Bone Structure

• Diaphysis (shaft), epiphyses (ends), periosteum (outer covering), medullary cavity (marrow cavity)

Compact vs. Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

• Compact: dense, strong, forms outer layer

• Spongy: porous, contains trabeculae, found in epiphyses

Bone Cells

• Osteon (structural unit), lamellae (layers), trabeculae (spongy bone), osteocyte (mature bone cell), osteoclast (bone resorbing cell), osteoblast (bone forming cell), Haversian canal (central canal)

Bone Matrix

• Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate crystals) + collagen fibers provide strength and flexibility

Hormonal Regulation

• Calcitonin: lowers blood calcium by stimulating bone deposition

• Parathyroid hormone (PTH): raises blood calcium by stimulating bone resorption

Joints

• Types: cartilaginous, synovial, fibrous

• Synovial joint types: ball & socket, saddle, hinge, pivot, plane, condyloid

Anatomical Directions

• Terms: caudal, cranial, left, right, distal, proximal, dorsal, ventral

Muscular System

Functions of the Muscular System

• Movement, posture, joint stabilization, heat generation

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Smooth (involuntary, walls of organs), skeletal (voluntary, attached to bones), cardiac (involuntary, heart)

Muscle Anatomy

• Muscle fiber (cell), muscle fascicle (bundle), muscle (organ)

• Connective tissue coverings: endomysium (fiber), perimysium (fascicle), epimysium (muscle)

Muscle Contraction

• Key proteins: actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin

• Energy: ATP required for contraction and relaxation

• Ions: Calcium triggers contraction by binding to troponin

• Sarcomere: functional unit of muscle contraction

Muscle Actions

• Agonist (prime mover), antagonist (opposes movement), synergist (assists), fixator (stabilizes)

Origin vs. Insertion

• Origin: Attachment to immovable bone

• Insertion: Attachment to movable bone