Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide: Foundational Concepts, Chemistry, and Cells

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Definition and Scope of Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy & Physiology is the study of the structure and function of the human body, from the smallest molecules to entire organ systems.

• Anatomy: The study of body structure, including organs, tissues, and cells.

• Physiology: The study of how body parts function and interact.

• Levels of Structural Organization: Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

• System Review: Know the function and major organs of each system (see Figure 1.3).

Survival Needs and Homeostasis

Survival requires certain needs such as nutrients, oxygen, water, and appropriate temperature and pressure.

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Negative Feedback: A process that reduces or reverses a change to maintain stability. Example: Regulation of body temperature.

• Positive Feedback: A process that amplifies a change. Example: Blood clotting.

Anatomical Position and Directional Terms

Understanding anatomical position and directional terms is essential for describing locations and relationships in the body.

• Anatomical Position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward.

• Directional Terms: Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal.

Body Cavities and Membranes

Body cavities house organs and are lined by membranes that protect and support them.

• Major Body Cavities: Dorsal (cranial and vertebral), ventral (thoracic and abdominopelvic).

• Membranes: Meninges (dorsal), serous membranes (ventral).

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Energy and Matter

Understanding energy and matter is fundamental to studying physiological processes.

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.

• Potential Energy: Stored energy.

• Elements: Pure substances consisting of one type of atom. Common Elements in the Body: Na, Cl, O2, K, N, H, Ca.

Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonds

Atoms are composed of subatomic particles and form bonds to create molecules.

• Subatomic Particles: Protons (+), neutrons (0), electrons (-).

• Ions: Atoms that have gained or lost electrons. Cations: Positively charged. Anions: Negatively charged.

• Chemical Bonds: Ionic, covalent, hydrogen bonds. Strength: Covalent > Ionic > Hydrogen.

Mixtures and Solutions

Mixtures are combinations of substances that are not chemically bonded.

• Types of Mixtures: Solutions, colloids, suspensions.

• Water Properties: High heat capacity, solvent, reactivity, cushioning.

Acids, Bases, and pH

Acids and bases are important for maintaining physiological pH.

• Acid: Releases H+ ions in solution.

• Base: Accepts H+ ions or releases OH-.

• pH Scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration. $\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[\text{H}^+]$

• Buffers: Compounds that stabilize pH.

Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are essential for life and include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

• Carbohydrates: Energy source; includes sugars and starches.

• Lipids: Fats, oils, phospholipids; important for membranes and energy storage.

• Proteins: Made of amino acids; function as enzymes, structural components.

• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information.

DNA, RNA, and ATP

Genetic information and cellular energy are managed by nucleic acids and ATP.

• DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid; stores genetic information.

• RNA: Ribonucleic acid; involved in protein synthesis.

• ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; main energy currency of the cell. $\text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P}_i + \text{energy}$

Chapter 3: The Cell

Cell Theory and Structure

The cell is the basic unit of life, and all living organisms are composed of cells.

• Cell Theory: All living things are made of cells; cells are the basic unit of structure and function; all cells come from pre-existing cells.

• Plasma Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; controls entry and exit of substances.

• Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the dynamic arrangement of phospholipids and proteins in the membrane.

Membrane Proteins and Functions

Membrane proteins perform various functions essential for cell survival and communication.

• Transport Proteins: Move substances across the membrane.

• Receptor Proteins: Receive signals from outside the cell.

• Enzymatic Proteins: Catalyze chemical reactions.

• Structural Proteins: Provide support and shape.

Tissues

Classification and Function of Tissues

Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform specific functions.

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities; classified by cell shape and layers.

• Glandular Tissue: Specialized for secretion.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues; includes bone, cartilage, blood, adipose.

• Nervous Tissue: Conducts electrical impulses; found in brain, spinal cord, nerves.

• Muscle Tissue: Contracts to produce movement; types include skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

Tissue Repair and Regeneration

Tissues have varying capacities for repair and regeneration after injury.

• Steps of Tissue Repair: Inflammation, organization, regeneration.

• Regenerative Capacity: Epithelial and connective tissues regenerate well; muscle and nervous tissues regenerate poorly.

Additional Info

• Watch for keywords in exam questions such as NOT, ALWAYS, EXCEPT.