Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide: Hormones, Nervous System, and Sensory Structures

Q1. How do body cells respond to hormones?

Background

Topic: Endocrine System & Hormone Action

This question tests your understanding of how hormones interact with cells and the concept of target cells/organs.

Key Terms:

• Hormone: A chemical messenger released by endocrine glands.

• Target cell: A cell with specific receptors for a hormone.

• Receptor: Protein on/in a cell that binds a specific hormone.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall that hormones travel through the bloodstream and can reach many cells.

2. Think about what makes a cell respond to a hormone: the presence of a specific receptor.

3. Consider the difference between all cells and target cells — only target cells have the right receptor.

4. Reflect on how this selectivity ensures hormones only affect certain organs or tissues.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Body cells respond to hormones only if they are target cells or organs, meaning they have specific receptors for that hormone. Non-target cells do not respond.

Q2. How does a hormone attach to a cell?

Background

Topic: Hormone-Receptor Interaction

This question is about the mechanism by which hormones bind to cells.

Key Terms:

• Receptor: A protein that binds a specific hormone.

• Specificity: Only certain hormones bind certain receptors.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall that hormones are chemical messengers.

2. Think about where receptors are located (cell membrane or inside cell).

3. Consider that a hormone must fit the receptor like a key fits a lock.

4. Reflect on how this ensures only certain cells respond to each hormone.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

A hormone attaches to a cell by binding to its specific receptor, which is designed for that hormone only.

Q3. What makes up the CNS? What makes up the PNS?

Background

Topic: Organization of the Nervous System

This question tests your knowledge of the structural divisions of the nervous system.

Key Terms:

• CNS: Central Nervous System

• PNS: Peripheral Nervous System

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the main components of the CNS.

2. Think about what structures are included in the PNS.

3. Consider the functional differences between CNS and PNS.

4. List the organs or structures for each system.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS includes all nerves outside the CNS, such as cranial and spinal nerves.

Q4. What are ependymal cells? And Schwann cells? How do they function? What are their roles?

Background

Topic: Neuroglia (Glial Cells) in Nervous System

This question tests your understanding of the types and functions of glial cells.

Key Terms:

• Ependymal cells: Glial cells in CNS.

• Schwann cells: Glial cells in PNS.

• Myelination: Formation of myelin sheath.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall where ependymal cells are found (CNS).

2. Think about their main function (lining ventricles, producing cerebrospinal fluid).

3. Recall where Schwann cells are found (PNS).

4. Consider their main function (myelinating peripheral nerves).

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Ependymal cells line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid. Schwann cells myelinate axons in the PNS, aiding in faster nerve impulse transmission.

Q5. What is the synaptic cleft?

Background

Topic: Neuron Communication

This question is about the structure involved in neurotransmitter transmission between neurons.

Key Terms:

• Synaptic cleft: Gap between neurons.

• Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger released at synapse.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the basic structure of a synapse.

2. Think about what separates the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.

3. Consider the role of the synaptic cleft in neurotransmitter diffusion.

4. Reflect on its importance in neuron communication.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The synaptic cleft is the gap between two communicating neurons or between a neuron and a muscle cell at the neuromuscular junction.

Q6. What keeps the eyeball from collapsing inward? What gives the eyeball its shape?

Background

Topic: Eye Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of the structures that maintain the shape of the eye.

Key Terms:

• Vitreous humor: Gel-like substance in the eye.

• Shape maintenance: Structural support of the eyeball.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the main internal components of the eye.

2. Think about which substance fills the posterior chamber.

3. Consider how this substance supports the retina and maintains eye shape.

4. Reflect on the consequences if this substance is lost.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The vitreous humor keeps the eyeball from collapsing inward and gives it its shape.

Q7. What kind of receptor is the olfactory receptor? Where are they found?

Background

Topic: Sensory Receptors

This question tests your understanding of olfactory receptors and their location.

Key Terms:

• Chemoreceptor: Detects chemical stimuli.

• Olfactory receptor: Senses smell.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the function of olfactory receptors.

2. Think about the type of stimulus they detect (chemicals).

3. Consider their anatomical location in the body.

4. Reflect on how their location relates to their function.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Olfactory receptors are chemoreceptors found in the nasal cavity.

Q8. Where do you find the adrenal glands?

Background

Topic: Endocrine System Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of the location of the adrenal glands.

Key Terms:

• Adrenal gland: Endocrine gland producing hormones like adrenaline and cortisol.

• Location: Anatomical position in the body.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the organs associated with the adrenal glands.

2. Think about their position relative to the kidneys.

3. Consider their role in hormone production.

4. Reflect on why their location is important for their function.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney.

Q9. What is the endocrine system? What are chemical messengers?

Background

Topic: Endocrine System Function

This question tests your understanding of the endocrine system and its messengers.

Key Terms:

• Endocrine system: System of glands that secrete hormones.

• Chemical messenger: Hormone that communicates signals.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the main function of the endocrine system.

2. Think about the types of glands involved.

3. Consider what chemical messengers are called.

4. Reflect on how these messengers travel and affect target cells.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The endocrine system is a network of glands that release hormones (chemical messengers) into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.

Q10. What is the difference between rods and cones? Where are they found (which layer of the eye)?

Background

Topic: Eye Anatomy & Photoreceptors

This question tests your knowledge of the types and locations of photoreceptors in the eye.

Key Terms:

• Rods: Photoreceptors for dim light and peripheral vision.

• Cones: Photoreceptors for color and sharp vision.

• Retina: Layer containing rods and cones.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the functions of rods and cones.

2. Think about which layer of the eye contains these cells.

3. Consider how their distribution affects vision.

4. Reflect on the importance of each type for vision.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Rods detect dim light and are found throughout the retina; cones detect color and are concentrated in the retina's central region.

Q11. Know the direction of ion diffusion during the action potential. (Potassium diffuses out of the cell into the tissue fluid) (Action potential is caused by an influx of sodium into the cell)

Background

Topic: Neuron Physiology & Action Potential

This question tests your understanding of ion movement during an action potential.

Key Terms:

• Action potential: Electrical signal in neurons.

• Sodium (Na+): Influx during depolarization.

• Potassium (K+): Efflux during repolarization.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the phases of an action potential: depolarization and repolarization.

2. Think about which ions move during each phase.

3. Consider the direction of sodium and potassium movement.

4. Reflect on how these movements change the membrane potential.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

During an action potential, sodium ions (Na+) move into the cell (influx), causing depolarization, and potassium ions (K+) move out of the cell (efflux), causing repolarization.

Q12. What is the difference between a graded potential and an action potential?

Background

Topic: Neuron Physiology

This question tests your understanding of electrical signals in neurons.

Key Terms:

• Graded potential: Local, variable change in membrane potential.

• Action potential: All-or-nothing, propagated signal.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall where graded potentials occur (dendrites, cell body).

2. Think about the characteristics of graded potentials (vary in size, not always trigger action potential).

3. Consider the characteristics of action potentials (always same size, propagate along axon).

4. Reflect on how each contributes to neuron communication.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Graded potentials are local changes in membrane potential that vary in size and can summate; action potentials are all-or-nothing signals that travel along the axon.

Q13. What is depolarization? What is repolarization?

Background

Topic: Neuron Action Potential

This question tests your understanding of the phases of an action potential.

Key Terms:

• Depolarization: Membrane potential becomes less negative.

• Repolarization: Membrane potential returns to resting state.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall what happens to the membrane potential during depolarization.

2. Think about which ions are involved in depolarization (Na+ influx).

3. Consider what happens during repolarization (K+ efflux).

4. Reflect on how these phases restore the resting membrane potential.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Depolarization is when the membrane potential becomes less negative due to sodium influx; repolarization is when it returns to resting state due to potassium efflux.

Q14. Name 3 cranial nerves for taste.

Background

Topic: Cranial Nerves & Sensory Function

This question tests your knowledge of cranial nerves involved in taste sensation.

Key Terms:

• Cranial nerves: Nerves that emerge from the brain.

• Taste: Gustatory sensation.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the cranial nerves associated with taste.

2. Think about which regions of the tongue each nerve serves.

3. Consider the names and numbers of these nerves.

4. Reflect on their roles in transmitting taste information.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The three cranial nerves for taste are the facial nerve (VII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), and vagus nerve (X).

Q15. Which is more durable? Dura mater or pia mater?

Background

Topic: Meninges of the Brain

This question tests your knowledge of the protective layers of the brain and spinal cord.

Key Terms:

• Dura mater: Tough, outermost meningeal layer.

• Pia mater: Delicate, innermost layer.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the three layers of meninges.

2. Think about the physical properties of dura mater and pia mater.

3. Consider which layer provides more protection.

4. Reflect on their roles in protecting the CNS.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The dura mater is more durable than the pia mater.

Q16. Label gray and white matter; gyrus, fissure and sulci (drag and drop)

Background

Topic: Brain Anatomy

This question tests your ability to identify and label key brain structures.

Key Terms:

• Gray matter: Contains neuron cell bodies.

• White matter: Contains myelinated axons.

• Gyrus: Raised ridge.

• Sulcus: Shallow groove.

• Fissure: Deep groove.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the locations of gray and white matter in the brain.

2. Think about the appearance of gyri, sulci, and fissures.

3. Consider how to distinguish these structures visually.

4. Reflect on their functional significance.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Gray matter is found on the outer cortex; white matter is deeper. Gyri are raised ridges, sulci are shallow grooves, and fissures are deep grooves.

Q17. Label parts of the cerebrum and the brain stem; label the cerebellum and spinal cord (drag and drop)

Background

Topic: Brain and Spinal Cord Anatomy

This question tests your ability to identify major regions of the brain and spinal cord.

Key Terms:

• Cerebrum: Largest part of the brain.

• Brain stem: Includes midbrain, pons, medulla.

• Cerebellum: Coordinates movement.

• Spinal cord: Transmits signals between brain and body.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the main regions of the brain.

2. Think about the location and function of each part.

3. Consider how to visually identify these structures.

4. Reflect on their roles in the nervous system.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The cerebrum is the largest, upper part; the brain stem is below, connecting to the spinal cord; the cerebellum is at the back, below the cerebrum; the spinal cord extends downward from the brain stem.

Q18. What is the function of the tarsal glands? They lubricate the eye with what?

Background

Topic: Eye Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of accessory structures of the eye.

Key Terms:

• Tarsal glands: Also called Meibomian glands.

• Lubrication: Prevents drying of the eye.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the location of tarsal glands (eyelids).

2. Think about their function in eye health.

3. Consider what substance they secrete.

4. Reflect on how this substance helps the eye.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Tarsal glands lubricate the eye with an oily secretion.

Q19. Find the classic endocrine glands in the body (label drag and drop)

Background

Topic: Endocrine System Anatomy

This question tests your ability to identify major endocrine glands.

Key Terms:

• Endocrine glands: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, etc.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the locations of major endocrine glands.

2. Think about their functions and hormones produced.

3. Consider how to visually identify these glands.

4. Reflect on their importance in homeostasis.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Classic endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.

Q20. What is the function of the pancreas when the blood sugar is low? Blood sugar high? Name the proper hormones to make these adjustments.

Background

Topic: Endocrine Regulation of Blood Sugar

This question tests your understanding of pancreatic hormones and their effects on blood glucose.

Key Terms:

• Insulin: Lowers blood sugar.

• Glucagon: Raises blood sugar.

• Pancreas: Endocrine and exocrine gland.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which hormone is released when blood sugar is high.

2. Think about which hormone is released when blood sugar is low.

3. Consider the effects of each hormone on blood glucose levels.

4. Reflect on how these hormones maintain homeostasis.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

When blood sugar is high, the pancreas releases insulin; when blood sugar is low, it releases glucagon.

Q21. What ion causes an action potential to initiate?

Background

Topic: Neuron Physiology

This question tests your understanding of the ion responsible for starting an action potential.

Key Terms:

• Sodium (Na+): Initiates action potential.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the sequence of ion movement during action potential.

2. Think about which ion enters the cell first.

3. Consider how this influx changes the membrane potential.

4. Reflect on the importance of this ion in neuron signaling.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Sodium ions (Na+) cause an action potential to initiate.

Q22. What are the projections on top of the tongue? What is found in the projections?

Background

Topic: Taste Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of tongue structure and taste sensation.

Key Terms:

• Papillae: Projections on the tongue.

• Taste buds: Sensory structures found in papillae.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the types of projections on the tongue.

2. Think about what sensory structures are found within them.

3. Consider their role in taste sensation.

4. Reflect on how these structures contribute to gustation.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The projections are papillae, and taste buds are found within them.

Q23. What is FSH and its function?

Background

Topic: Endocrine Hormones

This question tests your knowledge of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

Key Terms:

• FSH: Follicle-stimulating hormone.

• Function: Stimulates gamete production.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which gland produces FSH.

2. Think about its role in the reproductive system.

3. Consider its effects in males and females.

4. Reflect on its importance in fertility.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

FSH is follicle-stimulating hormone; it stimulates the development of eggs in ovaries and sperm in testes.

Q24. What is prolactin and its function?

Background

Topic: Endocrine Hormones

This question tests your knowledge of prolactin.

Key Terms:

• Prolactin: Hormone from anterior pituitary.

• Function: Stimulates milk production.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which gland produces prolactin.

2. Think about its main target organ.

3. Consider its role in lactation.

4. Reflect on its importance in reproduction.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Prolactin is a hormone that stimulates milk production in the mammary glands.

Q25. What structures are involved in dynamic equilibrium? Static equilibrium? Difference between the semicircular canals and otoliths.

Background

Topic: Inner Ear Anatomy & Balance

This question tests your knowledge of the structures responsible for balance.

Key Terms:

• Dynamic equilibrium: Detects rotational movement.

• Static equilibrium: Detects head position.

• Semicircular canals: Detect rotation.

• Otoliths: Detect linear movement and gravity.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall which inner ear structures detect dynamic equilibrium.

2. Think about which structures detect static equilibrium.

3. Consider the functional differences between semicircular canals and otoliths.

4. Reflect on how these structures contribute to balance.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Semicircular canals are involved in dynamic equilibrium (rotation); otoliths (in the utricle and saccule) are involved in static equilibrium (head position and linear movement).

Q26. What is the choroid plexus? Where is it found? What is its function?

Background

Topic: Brain Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of the choroid plexus and its role.

Key Terms:

• Choroid plexus: Network of capillaries in ventricles.

• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Fluid produced by choroid plexus.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the location of the choroid plexus (brain ventricles).

2. Think about its main function.

3. Consider the importance of CSF for brain health.

4. Reflect on how the choroid plexus contributes to homeostasis.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The choroid plexus is found in the brain's ventricles and produces cerebrospinal fluid.

Q27. What is a dendrite? What is the axon hillock? What is the axon terminal? Define them, not location.

Background

Topic: Neuron Structure

This question tests your knowledge of neuron parts and their functions.

Key Terms:

• Dendrite: Receives signals.

• Axon hillock: Initiates action potential.

• Axon terminal: Releases neurotransmitters.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the function of dendrites.

2. Think about the role of the axon hillock.

3. Consider the function of the axon terminal.

4. Reflect on how these parts contribute to neuron communication.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Dendrites receive incoming signals; the axon hillock is where action potentials start; axon terminals release neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells.

Q28. What is the cornea? What is the sclera? (First layer of eye)

Background

Topic: Eye Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of the outer layers of the eye.

Key Terms:

• Cornea: Transparent, front part of eye.

• Sclera: White, tough outer layer.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the structure and function of the cornea.

2. Think about the structure and function of the sclera.

3. Consider how these layers protect and shape the eye.

4. Reflect on their importance for vision.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The cornea is the transparent front layer; the sclera is the tough, white outer layer of the eye.

Q29. Third layer of eye contains the rods and cones (retina)

Background

Topic: Eye Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of the layers of the eye and their contents.

Key Terms:

• Retina: Third layer, contains photoreceptors.

• Rods and cones: Photoreceptors for vision.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the three main layers of the eye.

2. Think about which layer contains rods and cones.

3. Consider the function of the retina.

4. Reflect on how rods and cones contribute to vision.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The third layer of the eye is the retina, which contains rods and cones.

Q30. Rods and cones are photoreceptors. What do each allow us to see?

Background

Topic: Eye Anatomy & Vision

This question tests your knowledge of the function of rods and cones.

Key Terms:

• Rods: Dim light, peripheral vision.

• Cones: Color, sharp vision.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the function of rods in vision.

2. Think about the function of cones.

3. Consider how each contributes to overall vision.

4. Reflect on their importance in different lighting conditions.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Rods allow us to see in dim light and provide peripheral vision; cones allow us to see color and detail.

Q31. What are the 5 taste sensations?

Background

Topic: Taste Physiology

This question tests your knowledge of the basic taste sensations.

Key Terms:

• Taste sensations: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the five basic taste sensations.

2. Think about examples of foods for each taste.

3. Consider how taste buds detect these sensations.

4. Reflect on the importance of each for nutrition and safety.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The five taste sensations are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.

Q32. What are the steps of the reflex arc? List them in the correct order.

Background

Topic: Nervous System Physiology

This question tests your knowledge of the sequence of events in a reflex arc.

Key Terms:

• Reflex arc: Pathway for reflex action.

• Components: Receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the five main steps/components of a reflex arc.

2. Think about the order in which a signal travels.

3. Consider the function of each component.

4. Reflect on how this pathway produces a rapid response.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The steps of the reflex arc are: receptor, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, effector.

Q33. What is the all or nothing response? This is in reference to an action potential.

Background

Topic: Neuron Physiology

This question tests your understanding of the all-or-nothing principle in action potentials.

Key Terms:

• All-or-nothing response: Action potential occurs fully or not at all.

• Threshold: Minimum stimulus required.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall what happens when a neuron reaches threshold.

2. Think about whether action potentials vary in size.

3. Consider the significance of this principle for nerve signaling.

4. Reflect on how this ensures reliable communication.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The all-or-nothing response means that once threshold is reached, an action potential fires completely; if not, it doesn't fire at all.

Q34. Define epineurium, perineurium and endoneurium. What do these connective tissues wrap around?

Background

Topic: Nerve Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of the connective tissue layers of nerves.

Key Terms:

• Epineurium: Outermost layer.

• Perineurium: Surrounds fascicles.

• Endoneurium: Surrounds individual axons.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the three layers of connective tissue in nerves.

2. Think about what each layer wraps around.

3. Consider the structural organization of a nerve.

4. Reflect on the importance of these layers for protection and function.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Epineurium wraps the entire nerve; perineurium wraps nerve fascicles; endoneurium wraps individual axons.

Q35. What is the pupil? What is its function?

Background

Topic: Eye Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of the pupil and its role in vision.

Key Terms:

• Pupil: Opening in the center of the iris.

• Function: Regulates light entry.

Step-by-Step Guidance

1. Recall the structure of the pupil.

2. Think about how the pupil changes size.

3. Consider the role of the iris in pupil function.

4. Reflect on how pupil size affects vision.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The pupil is the opening in the iris that regulates the amount of light entering the eye.