Anatomy & Physiology: Study Guide on Human Body Organization, Cells, and Tissues

Study Guide - Smart Notes

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This section introduces foundational concepts in anatomy and physiology, including definitions and the hierarchical organization of the human body.

Human Anatomy: The scientific study of the structure of the human body.
Human Physiology: The study of the functions and mechanisms in a living system.
Gross Anatomy: Study of structures visible to the naked eye.
Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures requiring magnification (e.g., histology, cytology).
Embryology: Study of development from fertilization to birth.
Pathology: Study of disease and its effects on the body.
Levels of Organization: The human body is organized from smallest to largest as: chemical → cellular → tissue → organ → organ system → organism.
Organ vs. Organ System vs. Organism: An organ is a structure composed of at least two tissue types; an organ system is a group of organs working together; an organism is the complete living being.

Life Characteristics: Living organisms exhibit metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, reproduction, and homeostasis.
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Feedback System: A cycle of events in which information about the status of a condition is monitored and fed back to a control center.
Negative Feedback: Reverses a change in a controlled condition (e.g., regulation of body temperature).
Positive Feedback: Strengthens or reinforces a change (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth).
Comparison Table:

Feedback Type	Effect	Example
Negative	Reverses change	Body temperature regulation
Positive	Amplifies change	Labor contractions

Body Planes: Imaginary lines dividing the body to describe locations and directions (e.g., sagittal, frontal, transverse).
Body Cavities: Spaces within the body that contain internal organs (e.g., thoracic, abdominal, pelvic cavities).
Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions: The abdomen is divided into four quadrants and nine regions for anatomical study and clinical reference.

Serous Membrane: Thin, double-layered membranes covering organs in the ventral body cavity.
Layers: Parietal (lines cavity walls) and visceral (covers organs).
Examples: Pericardium (heart), pleura (lungs), peritoneum (abdominal organs).

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier that surrounds the cell, composed primarily of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the membrane as a dynamic structure with proteins floating in or on the fluid lipid bilayer.
Significance: Maintains homeostasis by controlling entry and exit of substances.
Glycocalyx: A carbohydrate-rich area on the cell surface important for cell recognition and protection.
Membrane Proteins: Include integral and peripheral proteins with functions such as transport, signaling, and cell recognition.

Typical Cell Organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton.
Functions: Each organelle has specialized roles, e.g., mitochondria produce ATP, lysosomes digest waste.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Processes for moving substances into and out of the cell via vesicles.
Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis: Types of endocytosis; phagocytosis engulfs large particles, pinocytosis takes in fluid.

DNA Replication: The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division.
Transcription: Synthesis of RNA from a DNA template.
Translation: Synthesis of proteins from mRNA at the ribosome.
Central Dogma:

Cell Cycle: Series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide; includes interphase (G1, S, G2) and mitotic phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).
Mitosis: Division of the nucleus resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells.
Stages of Mitosis: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
Significance: Ensures genetic continuity and tissue growth/repair.

Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a common function. Histology is the study of tissues.

Four Basic Types: Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Intercellular Junctions: Structures that connect cells, including tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

Types: Simple (single layer) and stratified (multiple layers); shapes include squamous, cuboidal, columnar.
Locations: Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands.
Functions: Protection, absorption, secretion, filtration.

Functions: Supports, binds, protects, insulates, stores energy, transports substances.
Main Components: Cells, fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular), and ground substance.
Types: Loose (areolar, adipose, reticular), dense (regular, irregular, elastic), cartilage, bone, blood.
Specialized Cells: Fibroblasts, chondrocytes, osteocytes, adipocytes.
Comparison Table:

Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement; types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
Nervous Tissue: Composed of neurons and neuroglia; responsible for transmitting electrical impulses.

Germ Layers: Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm; give rise to all tissues and organs.
Haversian System (Osteon): Structural unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric lamellae around a central canal.
Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands: Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream; exocrine glands secrete substances via ducts.
Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine: Types of exocrine gland secretion.

Lymph: Fluid derived from interstitial fluid, important for immune function and returned to the bloodstream via lymphatic vessels.
Bone Structure: Key features include lacuna, lamella, canaliculi, osteocyte, and central canal.

Additional info: Some content and definitions were expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard Anatomy & Physiology curricula.