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Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide: Tissues, Integumentary System, and Skeletal System

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Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric

Classification of Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial tissues are classified based on the number of cell layers and the shape of the cells. They serve as protective barriers and are involved in absorption, secretion, and sensation.

  • Number of Layers:

    • Simple Epithelium: Single layer of cells; functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration.

    • Stratified Epithelium: Multiple layers; provides protection against abrasion.

  • Cell Shape:

    • Squamous: Flat, scale-like cells.

    • Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells.

    • Columnar: Tall, column-like cells.

  • Locations: Examples include skin (stratified squamous), lining of the gut (simple columnar), and kidney tubules (simple cuboidal).

Types of Glands

Glands are specialized epithelial cells that produce and secrete substances.

  • Exocrine Glands: Secrete products into ducts (e.g., sweat glands, salivary glands).

  • Endocrine Glands: Release hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., thyroid gland).

  • Locations: Exocrine glands are found in skin and digestive tract; endocrine glands are distributed throughout the body.

Classification of Connective Tissues

Connective tissues support, protect, and bind other tissues. They are classified by their structure, function, and location.

  • Loose Connective Tissue: Includes areolar, adipose, and reticular tissues; found under skin and around organs.

  • Dense Connective Tissue: Includes dense regular (tendons, ligaments) and dense irregular (dermis of skin).

  • Cartilage: Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage (see Chapter 6).

  • Bone: Provides structural support.

  • Blood: Transports nutrients and wastes.

Structure and Functions of Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is specialized for communication and control.

  • Neurons: Conduct electrical impulses.

  • Neuroglia: Support and protect neurons.

  • Function: Transmit signals throughout the body.

Structure and Functions of Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissue is responsible for movement.

  • Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary movement; attached to bones.

  • Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary; found in the heart.

  • Smooth Muscle: Involuntary; found in walls of hollow organs.

Tissue Repair

Tissue repair involves regeneration and fibrosis.

  • Regeneration: Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells.

  • Fibrosis: Replacement by scar tissue.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Layers of the Epidermis, Dermis, and Subcutaneous Tissue

The skin consists of three main layers, each with distinct functions.

  • Epidermis: Superficial layer; composed of stratified squamous epithelium.

    • Layers (from superficial to deep):

      • Stratum corneum

      • Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)

      • Stratum granulosum

      • Stratum spinosum

      • Stratum basale

  • Dermis: Middle layer; contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and glands.

    • Layers:

      • Papillary layer (loose connective tissue)

      • Reticular layer (dense irregular connective tissue)

  • Subcutaneous Tissue (Hypodermis): Deepest layer; composed of adipose and areolar tissue.

Factors Affecting Skin Color

Skin color is determined by several factors:

  • Melanin: Pigment produced by melanocytes; provides brown to black color.

  • Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment from diet.

  • Hemoglobin: Red pigment in blood; gives pinkish hue.

Structure of Hair and Follicle

Hair is composed of dead, keratinized cells and grows from follicles.

  • Hair Shaft: Visible part above skin.

  • Hair Root: Embedded in follicle.

  • Hair Follicle: Surrounds root; contains bulb and papilla.

Structure of Nails

Nails are protective coverings on fingers and toes.

  • Nail Plate: Hard, keratinized structure.

  • Nail Bed: Underlying tissue.

  • Matrix: Growth area.

Eccrine, Apocrine, and Sebaceous Glands

Skin contains several types of glands:

  • Eccrine Sweat Glands: Produce watery sweat; found all over body; important for thermoregulation.

  • Apocrine Sweat Glands: Found in axillary and genital areas; produce thicker, odoriferous secretion.

  • Sebaceous Glands: Secrete sebum (oil); lubricates skin and hair.

Functions of Skin

  • Protection

  • Regulation of body temperature

  • Sensation

  • Excretion

  • Synthesis of vitamin D

Types of Skin Cancer and Appearance

Skin cancer types differ in appearance and severity.

  • Basal Cell Carcinoma: Most common; appears as pearly nodules.

  • Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Scaly, red patches or nodules.

  • Melanoma: Most dangerous; irregular, dark lesions.

ABCD Rule for Skin Cancer

  • A: Asymmetry

  • B: Border irregularity

  • C: Color variation

  • D: Diameter > 6 mm

Evaluation and Treatment of Burns

Burns are classified by depth and extent.

  • First-degree: Only epidermis; redness and pain.

  • Second-degree: Epidermis and part of dermis; blisters.

  • Third-degree: Entire thickness; gray-white or blackened skin.

Treatment includes fluid replacement, infection prevention, and skin grafts for severe burns.

Rule of Nines

The rule of nines estimates the percentage of body surface area affected by burns.

Body Region

Percentage

Head and Neck

9%

Each Arm

9%

Each Leg

18%

Anterior Trunk

18%

Posterior Trunk

18%

Perineum

1%

Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissue

Types of Cartilage

Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in various locations.

Type

Structure

Location

Function

Hyaline Cartilage

Fine collagen fibers

Ends of bones, nose, trachea

Support, flexibility

Fibrocartilage

Thick collagen fibers

Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis

Strength, shock absorption

Elastic Cartilage

Elastic fibers

Ear, epiglottis

Flexibility

Appositional and Interstitial Growth

  • Appositional Growth: Cartilage grows by adding new layers to the surface.

  • Interstitial Growth: Cartilage grows from within by division of chondrocytes.

Functions of Bone

  • Support

  • Protection

  • Movement

  • Mineral storage (calcium, phosphate)

  • Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

  • Triglyceride storage

Classification and Structure of Bones

  • Long Bones: Longer than wide (e.g., femur).

  • Short Bones: Cube-shaped (e.g., carpals).

  • Flat Bones: Thin, flat (e.g., skull).

  • Irregular Bones: Complex shapes (e.g., vertebrae).

Structure includes diaphysis, epiphysis, medullary cavity, and periosteum.

Cells of Bone Tissue

  • Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells.

  • Osteocytes: Mature bone cells.

  • Osteoclasts: Bone-resorbing cells.

Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

Compact bone is organized into osteons (Haversian systems).

  • Osteon: Structural unit; contains concentric lamellae.

  • Central Canal: Contains blood vessels and nerves.

  • Lacunae: Spaces housing osteocytes.

  • Canaliculi: Tiny canals connecting lacunae.

Organic and Inorganic Components

  • Organic: Collagen fibers, cells; provide flexibility.

  • Inorganic: Hydroxyapatite (calcium phosphate); provides hardness.

Intramembranous and Endochondral Ossification

  • Intramembranous Ossification: Bone develops from fibrous membrane; forms flat bones.

  • Endochondral Ossification: Bone develops from cartilage model; forms most bones.

Postnatal Bone Growth, Deposition, Resorption, and Remodeling

  • Postnatal Growth: Lengthening at epiphyseal plate; appositional growth increases thickness.

  • Bone Deposition: Addition of new bone by osteoblasts.

  • Bone Resorption: Removal of bone by osteoclasts.

  • Remodeling: Continuous process of deposition and resorption.

Hormonal Regulation of Calcium Levels

Calcium levels are regulated by hormones.

  • Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Increases blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts.

  • Calcitonin: Lowers blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts.

Equation:

Response to Mechanical Stress

Bones adapt to mechanical stress by remodeling.

  • Wolff's Law: Bone grows and remodels in response to forces placed upon it.

Fracture Classification, Treatment, and Repair

  • Classification: Simple (closed), compound (open), comminuted, greenstick, etc.

  • Treatment: Reduction (realignment), immobilization.

  • Repair: Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus, bony callus, bone remodeling.

Bone Disorders

  • Osteomalacia: Softening of bones due to vitamin D deficiency.

  • Rickets: Childhood osteomalacia; affects bone growth.

  • Osteoporosis: Decreased bone mass; increased fracture risk.

  • Paget’s Disease: Abnormal bone remodeling; thick, weak bones.

Additional info: Academic context and examples were added to expand brief points and ensure completeness.

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