Anatomy & Physiology Test Review: Key Concepts and Terminology

Test Overview and Structure

General Test Breakdown

This section outlines the distribution of topics and question types for the upcoming Anatomy & Physiology test. Understanding the weight of each topic can help prioritize study efforts.

Percent of Test	Number of Questions	Topics Covered
20%	8	Directional terms, Cavities, Specific locations
10%	4	Subatomic particles, Bonding, Properties of water
35%	14	Tissue types/functions, Tissue types/anatomy, Cell organelles/functions, Cell organelles/anatomy
35%	14	Integument functions, Skin layers/anatomy, Skin layers/functions, Layer morphology, Keratin/elastin/collagen, ABCDE, Burns, Accessory organs/anatomy, Accessory organs/functions

Chapter 1: Anatomical Terminology

Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to describe the locations of structures in relation to other structures or locations in the body. Mastery of these terms is essential for clear communication in anatomy.

• Superior (cranial, cephalic): Toward the head end or upper part of a structure.

• Inferior (caudal): Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure.

• Anterior (ventral): Toward the front of the body.

• Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back of the body.

• Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

• Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.

• Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment.

• Distal: Farther from the origin of the body part or the point of attachment.

Example: The heart is medial to the lungs; the wrist is distal to the elbow.

Body Cavities

Body cavities are spaces within the body that contain vital organs. They provide protection and allow organ movement and expansion.

• Dorsal cavity: Includes the cranial cavity (brain, protected by the skull) and vertebral cavity (spinal cord, protected by vertebrae).

• Ventral cavity: Divided by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity (lungs, heart, trachea, etc.) and abdominopelvic cavity (digestive organs, bladder, reproductive organs).

• Other cavities: Oral and digestive cavities, nasal cavity, orbital cavities (eyes), middle ear cavity.

Example: The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominopelvic cavity by the diaphragm.

Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Subatomic Particles and Atomic Structure

Atoms are the building blocks of matter, composed of subatomic particles. Understanding atomic structure is foundational for studying biological molecules.

• Protons: Positively charged particles in the nucleus; determine atomic number.

• Neutrons: Neutral particles in the nucleus; contribute to atomic mass.

• Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus; involved in chemical bonding.

• Atomic number: Number of protons in an atom; unique to each element.

• Mass number: Sum of protons and neutrons.

• Atomic weight: Average mass of an element's isotopes.

Example: Carbon has 6 protons, 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons.

Properties of Water

Water is essential for life due to its unique properties, which support physiological processes.

• High heat capacity: Water absorbs and releases heat slowly, helping regulate body temperature.

• Solvent properties: Water dissolves many substances, making it the "universal solvent."

• Chemical reactivity: Water participates in hydrolysis reactions, aiding digestion and metabolism.

• Cushioning: Water-based fluids protect organs (e.g., cerebrospinal fluid, amniotic fluid).

Example: Water helps digest food by hydrolyzing complex molecules.

Cell Structure and Function

Cell Organelles

Cell organelles are specialized structures within cells that perform distinct functions necessary for cell survival and activity.

• Nucleus: Control center containing DNA; directs protein synthesis and cell reproduction.

• Cytoplasm: Cellular material outside the nucleus; site of most cellular activities.

• Centrioles: Rod-shaped bodies that organize microtubules and direct mitotic spindle formation during cell division.

• Cytoskeleton: Network of protein filaments (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules) providing cell shape and support.

• Peroxisomes: Membranous sacs containing enzymes that detoxify harmful substances and break down free radicals.

• Lysosomes: Membranous "bags" containing digestive enzymes; break down waste and cellular debris.

• Golgi apparatus: Stack of membranes that modify, sort, and package proteins and lipids for secretion or use within the cell.

• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Network of membranes involved in protein and lipid synthesis; rough ER has ribosomes, smooth ER does not.

• Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis; found free in cytoplasm or attached to rough ER.

• Mitochondria: Double-membraned organelles that produce ATP through cellular respiration.

Example: Lysosomes digest bacteria and worn-out cell parts.

Tissues and Their Functions

Types of Tissues

The human body is composed of four basic tissue types, each with specialized functions.

• Epithelial tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities; involved in protection, absorption, and secretion.

• Connective tissue: Supports, binds, and protects organs; includes bone, blood, and adipose tissue.

• Muscle tissue: Responsible for movement; includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

• Nervous tissue: Transmits electrical impulses; found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

Example: Skin contains all four tissue types, with epithelial tissue forming the outer layer.

Integumentary System

Functions and Structure

The integumentary system includes the skin and its accessory structures. It serves as the body's first line of defense and helps maintain homeostasis.

• Protection: Keratinized cells form a barrier against physical, chemical, and biological threats.

• Temperature regulation: Blood vessels and sweat glands help control body temperature.

• Sensation: Sensory receptors detect touch, pain, and temperature.

• Excretion: Sweat glands remove waste products.

• Vitamin D synthesis: Skin produces vitamin D when exposed to sunlight.

Example: Melanin in skin protects against UV radiation.

Skin Layers and Morphology

The skin consists of three main layers, each with distinct functions and structures.

• Epidermis: Outermost layer; provides waterproof barrier and creates skin tone.

• Dermis: Middle layer; contains connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands.

• Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer): Deepest layer; made of fat and connective tissue.

Key proteins:

• Keratin: Durable, water-resistant protein found in skin, hair, and nails.

• Collagen: Provides toughness and attracts water to keep skin hydrated.

• Elastin: Gives skin elasticity; decreases with age.

Example: Burns damage skin layers and can affect accessory organs.

ABCDE Rule for Skin Assessment

The ABCDE rule helps identify potentially cancerous skin lesions.

• A: Asymmetry

• B: Border irregularity

• C: Color variation

• D: Diameter greater than 6mm

• E: Evolving shape or color

Example: A mole that changes in size or color should be evaluated by a healthcare professional.

Accessory Organs of the Skin

Accessory organs include structures that support the skin's functions.

• Hair: Provides protection and sensory input.

• Nails: Protect fingertips and enhance sensation.

• Sweat glands: Aid in temperature regulation and excretion.

• Oil (sebaceous) glands: Lubricate skin and hair.

• Nerves: Detect environmental changes.

Example: Sweat glands activate during hyperthermia to cool the body.

Homeostasis and Skin

The skin plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis, especially in temperature regulation.

• Vasoconstriction: Blood vessels constrict in cold conditions to conserve heat.

• Vasodilation: Blood vessels dilate in hot conditions to release heat.

• Sweat gland activity: Increases during heat to promote cooling.

Example: 5% of blood volume is found in the skin, aiding temperature regulation.

Additional info: These notes expand on brief points from the original materials, providing definitions, examples, and context for key Anatomy & Physiology concepts relevant to the test review.