ANP College Course Study Guide: Chapters 1–15

Chapter 1: The Human Body – An Orientation

Anatomy vs. Physiology

Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, while physiology focuses on their function. The relationship between structure and function is fundamental: the form of a structure enables its function.

• Anatomy: Examines the physical form, location, and relationships of body parts.

• Physiology: Studies how body parts work and interact.

• Example: The heart's muscular walls (structure) allow it to pump blood (function).

Subdisciplines of Anatomy and Physiology

• Gross Anatomy: Study of structures visible to the naked eye.

• Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures requiring magnification (e.g., histology).

• General Physiology: Normal function of body systems.

• Pathophysiology: Study of abnormal function and disease.

Anatomical Position, Directional Terms, and Planes

• Anatomical Position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward.

• Directional Terms: Superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal.

• Anatomical Planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse.

Body Cavities and Membranes

• Body Cavity: Space within the body containing organs.

• Principal Cavities: Dorsal (cranial, vertebral), ventral (thoracic, abdominopelvic).

• Serous Membranes: Line cavities and cover organs (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

Homeostasis

• Definition: Maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Dynamic Steady State: Conditions fluctuate within narrow limits.

• Conditions Maintained: Temperature, pH, fluid balance, blood glucose.

Internal Environment and Fluid Compartments

• Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside cells (includes interstitial fluid and plasma).

• Interstitial Fluid (IF): Fluid between cells.

• Plasma: Fluid component of blood.

• Intracellular Fluid (ICF): Fluid within cells.

• Cytosol: Liquid part of cytoplasm.

• Cytoplasm: Includes cytosol and organelles.

Homeostatic Control Systems

• Components: Receptor, control center, effector.

• Diagram: Stimulus → Receptor → Control Center → Effector → Response.

Feedback Mechanisms

• Negative Feedback: Reduces deviation from set point (e.g., temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies deviation (e.g., blood clotting).

• Feed-forward: Anticipates change before it occurs.

Homeostatic Regulation and Disease

• Example: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin.

• Disease: Failure of homeostasis leads to disorders (e.g., diabetes).

Lab Topics

• Identification of directional terms, anatomical planes, cavities, abdominopelvic regions, and surface anatomy.

Chapter 2: Chemistry Comes Alive

Chemical Bonding and Electrons

Electrons determine how atoms bond. Chemical bonds form when atoms share or transfer electrons.

• Covalent Bonds: Atoms share electrons; strong bonds.

• Ionic Bonds: Atoms transfer electrons; weaker in water.

• Polar Bonds: Unequal sharing; water is polar.

• Nonpolar Bonds: Equal sharing; e.g., O2.

Hydrogen Bonds

• Definition: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another electronegative atom.

• Characteristics: Important in water, DNA, proteins.

Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic

• Hydrophilic: Water-loving; polar substances.

• Hydrophobic: Water-fearing; nonpolar substances.

Solutions and Mixtures

• Solution: Homogeneous mixture; solute dissolved in solvent.

• Colloid: Particles dispersed but not dissolved.

• Suspension: Particles settle out.

• Emulsion: Mixture of two immiscible liquids.

ATP and ADP

• ATP: Main energy carrier; releases energy when converted to ADP.

• Equation: $\mathrm{ATP} \rightarrow \mathrm{ADP} + \mathrm{P}_i + \text{energy}$

Acids, Bases, Salts, pH, and Buffers

• Acid: Releases hydrogen ions (protons).

• Base: Accepts hydrogen ions.

• Salt: Ionic compound from acid-base reaction.

• pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration.

• Equation: $\mathrm{pH} = -\log_{10}[\mathrm{H}^+]$

• Buffer: Resists changes in pH.

• Dissociation: Separation of ions in solution.

Lab Topics: Metric System and pH

• Metric units and prefixes (kilo, centi, milli, micro, nano).

• Conversions using dimensional analysis.

• Scientific notation.

• Scatterplot graphs.

• Measuring pH and comparing buffered vs. unbuffered solutions.

Chapter 3: Cells – The Living Units

Plasma Membrane and Fluid Compartments

• Intracellular Fluid: Inside cells.

• Extracellular Fluid: Outside cells.

Membrane Permeability

• Permeable: Allows substances to pass.

• Impermeable: Blocks substances.

• Selectively Permeable: Allows some substances, not others.

Cell Communication

• Protein Receptors: Enable signaling between cells.

• Types: Receptor-channel, receptor-enzyme, second messenger, direct gene activation.

Transport Across Membranes

• Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water.

• Osmolarity: Concentration of solutes.

• Osmotic Pressure: Pressure to move water.

• Tonicity: Effect of solution on cell shape.

• Isotonic: No net water movement.

• Hypotonic: Cell swells.

• Hypertonic: Cell shrinks.

• Filtration: Movement due to pressure.

• Carrier-mediated Transport: Uses proteins for transport.

• Facilitated Diffusion: Passive, uses carrier proteins.

• Active Transport: Requires energy.

• Primary Active Transport: Direct use of ATP (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

• Secondary Active Transport: Uses gradient created by primary transport.

• Vesicular Transport: Endocytosis, exocytosis, phagocytosis.

Membrane Potential

• Definition: Voltage across membrane.

• Resting Potential: Maintained by ion gradients.

• Functions: Essential for nerve and muscle activity.

Lab Topics

• Effects of solute permeability on diffusion and osmotic pressure.

• Calculation of osmolarity.

• Microscope parts and usage.

Chapter 4: Tissue – The Living Fabric

Definition and Types of Tissue

• Tissue: Group of similar cells performing a function.

• Types: Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

Epithelial Tissue

• Naming Criteria: Cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and layers (simple, stratified).

• Types:

  • Simple squamous: Thin, for diffusion; lungs.

  • Simple columnar: Absorption; intestines.

  • Simple cuboidal: Secretion; glands.

  • Pseudostratified columnar: Respiratory tract.

  • Stratified squamous (keratinized): Skin.

  • Stratified squamous (non-keratinized): Esophagus.

  • Transitional: Bladder.

Connective Tissue

• Areolar: Loose, supports organs.

• Adipose: Stores fat.

• Reticular: Supports lymphoid organs.

• Dense regular: Tendons.

• Dense irregular: Dermis.

• Elastic: Arteries.

• Hyaline cartilage: Joints.

• Elastic cartilage: Ear.

• Fibrocartilage: Intervertebral discs.

• Compact bone: Skeleton.

• Blood: Transport.

Glands and Membranes

• Endocrine: Ductless, hormones.

• Exocrine: Ducts, secretions.

• Membranes: Cutaneous (skin), mucous (lines cavities), serous (lines body cavities).

Lab Topics

• Identification of tissue types and features.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Functions and Structure of Skin

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis.

• Layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (deep).

• Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium.

• Dermis: Connective tissue.

• Hypodermis: Adipose tissue.

Cell Replacement

• Surface cells replaced by mitosis in basal layer.

Accessory Structures

• Hair, hair follicle, sebaceous glands (oil), sudoriferous glands (sweat).

Pigments Affecting Skin Color

• Melanin, carotene, hemoglobin.

Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissue

Functions and Structure of Skeletal System

• Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation.

• Organs: Bones, cartilage.

• Bone shapes: Long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid.

• Long bone structure: Diaphysis, epiphysis, medullary cavity.

• Microscopic structure: Osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts; matrix of collagen and minerals.

• Compact vs. cancellous bone.

• Cartilage growth: Appositional (surface), interstitial (within).

• Ossification: Endochondral (cartilage model), intramembranous (membrane model).

• Bone growth: Length (epiphyseal plate), thickness (appositional).

• Hormonal control: Growth hormone, IGF, calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, vitamin D.

Lab Topics

• Bone identification by shape and histology.

Chapter 7: The Skeleton

Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton

• Axial: Skull, vertebrae, ribcage, hyoid.

• Appendicular: Limbs, shoulder, pelvic girdles.

• Male vs. female pelvis: Structural differences for childbirth.

Lab Topics

• Identification of bones and markings.

Chapter 8: Joints

Classification and Structure of Joints

• Joint: Connection between bones.

• Functional Classification: Synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), diarthroses (freely movable).

• Structural Classification: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.

• Synovial Joint Structure: Capsule, membrane, fluid, cavity, cartilage, ligaments, bursae, fat pads, menisci.

• Stability vs. Mobility: Inverse relationship.

• Types of Synovial Joints: Plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball-and-socket.

• Movements: Gliding, flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, rotation, supination, pronation, inversion, eversion, protraction, retraction, elevation, depression, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, opposition.

Chapter 9: Muscles and Muscle Tissue

Functions and Types of Muscle Tissue

• Movement, posture, heat production.

• Types: Skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary), smooth (involuntary).

Skeletal Muscle Structure

• Contractile proteins: Actin, myosin.

• Cell structure: Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, myofibrils.

• Organ structure: Fascicles, connective tissue layers.

• Sarcomere: Functional unit.

Neuromuscular Junction and Contraction

• Motor end plate, acetylcholine release, end plate potential, transverse tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum.

• Sliding-filament mechanism: Cross bridge cycle.

• Role of calcium: Initiates contraction.

• Relaxation: Removal of calcium, breakdown of acetylcholine.

• Muscle twitch: Phases—latent, contraction, relaxation.

• Length-tension relationship.

• Motor unit: Group of muscle fibers controlled by one neuron.

• Summation and tetanus: Increased force by repeated stimulation.

• Naming muscles: Location, shape, size, action.

• Prime mover, synergist, antagonist.

Chapter 10: The Muscular System

Muscle Naming and Identification

• Criteria: Location, shape, size, action, attachments.

• Lab: Identification of specific muscles.

Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

Functions and Organization

• Functions: Sensory input, integration, motor output.

• Organization: CNS (brain, spinal cord), PNS (nerves).

Neuron Structure and Classification

• Components: Cell body, dendrites, axon.

• Structural: Multipolar, bipolar, unipolar.

• Functional: Sensory, motor, interneuron.

Glial Cells and Myelin

• CNS: Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells.

• PNS: Schwann cells, satellite cells.

• Myelin: Insulates axons, increases speed.

• White matter: Myelinated; gray matter: unmyelinated.

Nerve Structure

• Bundles of axons, connective tissue layers.

Neurophysiology

• Chemical synapse: Neurotransmitter release, postsynaptic response.

• Excitatory vs. inhibitory synapses.

• Polarization, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization.

• Graded vs. action potentials.

• Action potential phases: Threshold, depolarization, repolarization, refractory periods.

• Propagation: Faster in myelinated fibers.

• Conduction velocity: Affected by diameter, myelination.

• Neurotransmitters: Ach, NE, glutamate, GABA.

• EPSPs, IPSPs, summation, integration.

Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System

Anatomy and Functions

• Cerebrum: Cortex, white matter, basal nuclei.

• Diencephalon: Epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus.

• Brain stem: Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata.

• Cerebellum: Coordination.

• Spinal cord: Conduction, reflexes.

Functional Regions and Integration

• Sensory and motor areas, spatial representation.

• Limbic system: Emotion, memory.

• Learning and memory mechanisms.

• Cerebellum: Voluntary muscle activity.

• Reticular formation: Consciousness.

• Sleep physiology.

• Ventricles, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, blood-brain barrier.

• Spinal cord structure: White and gray matter.

• Ascending and descending tracts.

Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity

Sensory Receptors and Nerves

• Sensory receptors: Structure, function, stimulus classification.

• General vs. special senses.

• Nerve structure.

• Cranial nerves: Location, function.

• Spinal nerves: Origin, branches, plexuses.

Reflexes

• Reflex diagram and definition.

• Somatic vs. autonomic, cranial vs. spinal.

• Simple spinal reflexes: Stretch, withdrawal.

• Reciprocal innervation.

Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System

Functions and Divisions

• General functions: Involuntary control.

• Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic: Opposing effects.

• Comparison to somatic motor division.

• Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons.

• Dual innervation.

• Effects on heart and GI organs.

• Autonomic agonists and antagonists.

• Adrenal medulla role.

• Brain regulation of ANS.

Chapter 15: The Special Senses

General Overview

• Location and structure of receptor cells, accessory structures, afferent pathways.

Vision

• Accessory structures: Palpebrae, levator palpebrae superioris, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus, extrinsic muscles.

• Three layers: Fibrous, vascular, neural.

• Lens: Focuses light.

• Eye cavities: Anterior (aqueous humor), posterior (vitreous humor).

• Processes: Refraction, accommodation, phototransduction.

• Pupillary reflex.

• Rods vs. cones.

• Afferent pathway for vision.

Auditory (Hearing) and Equilibrium

• Outer, middle, inner ear structures.

• Bony vs. membranous labyrinth; perilymph vs. endolymph.

• Sound wave collection and amplification.

• Transduction in organ of Corti; pitch and intensity coding.

• Afferent pathway for hearing.

• Equilibrium organs: Cristae ampullaris, otolith organs.

• Afferent pathway for equilibrium.

Olfaction (Smell)

• Location and receptors.

• Transduction at olfactory receptors.

• Afferent pathway for olfaction.

Gustation (Taste)

• Location and receptors.

• Transduction at gustatory receptors.

• Afferent pathway for gustation.