BIO 137 Anatomy I Cumulative Final Study Guide

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Module 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1: Anatomy Organization and Orientation

This chapter introduces the structural organization of the human body, anatomical terminology, and the major organ systems.

11 Organ Systems: Each system consists of specific organs and has a primary function. Examples include:
- Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails; protects body, regulates temperature.
- Skeletal System: Bones, joints; supports and protects organs, enables movement.
- Muscular System: Muscles; movement, posture, heat production.
- Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves; control and communication.
- Endocrine System: Glands; hormone production and regulation.
- Cardiovascular System: Heart, blood vessels; transport of nutrients and gases.
- Lymphatic System: Lymph nodes, vessels; immune response, fluid balance.
- Respiratory System: Lungs, airways; gas exchange.
- Digestive System: Stomach, intestines; breakdown and absorption of food.
- Urinary System: Kidneys, bladder; waste elimination, water balance.
- Reproductive System: Ovaries/testes; production of offspring.
Anatomic Directions: Terms such as anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal describe locations and relationships.
Body Planes: Three main planes divide the body:
- Sagittal Plane: Divides body into left and right.
- Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior and posterior.
- Transverse Plane: Divides body into superior and inferior.
Body Cavities: Dorsal (cranial, vertebral) and ventral (thoracic, abdominopelvic) cavities house organs and are lined by membranes (e.g., meninges, pleura, peritoneum).

Chapter 2: Chemistry Comes Alive

This chapter covers basic chemistry concepts relevant to physiology, including atomic structure, chemical bonds, and macromolecules.

Energy Types: Kinetic (motion) vs. potential (stored); four main types: chemical, electrical, mechanical, radiant.
Atomic Structure: Atoms consist of protons (+), neutrons (neutral), and electrons (-).
Key Terms: Isotope (same element, different neutrons), Cation (positive ion), Anion (negative ion).
Main Elements: Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen.
Chemical Bonds: Ionic (transfer of electrons), covalent (sharing electrons), hydrogen (weak attraction).
Chemical Reactions: Synthesis (building), decomposition (breaking), exchange (swapping), oxidation/reduction (electron transfer).
pH, Acids, Bases, Buffers: pH measures hydrogen ion concentration; acids donate H+, bases accept H+, buffers stabilize pH.
Macromolecules:
- Carbohydrates: Energy source; monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
- Lipids: Fats, oils, phospholipids; energy storage, membrane structure.
- Proteins: Amino acids; enzymes, structural support.
- Nucleic Acids: DNA, RNA; genetic information.

Module 2: Cells and Tissues

Chapter 3: Cells - The Living Units

This chapter explores cell structure, membrane transport, and cell division.

Cell Organization: Plasma membrane (boundary), cytoplasm (fluid and organelles), nucleus (genetic material).
Organelles: Mitochondria (ATP production), ribosomes (protein synthesis), ER (smooth: lipid synthesis; rough: protein synthesis), Golgi apparatus (processing proteins), cytoskeleton (structure), microvilli (increase surface area), cilia/flagella (movement).
Cell Membrane: Lipid bilayer with proteins; selective permeability; types of membrane proteins (integral, peripheral), glycocalyx (cell recognition).
Transport:
- Passive: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.
- Active: Requires energy; pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis.
- Vesicular Transport: Movement of large particles via vesicles.
Resting Membrane Potential: Voltage across membrane due to ion gradients.
Gradients: Concentration, osmotic, pressure, electrical gradients drive movement.
Channel Types: Leak (always open), gated (open in response to signals), ligand, voltage, mechanically gated.
Cell Cycle: Phases: G1, S, G2, M (mitosis); cytokinesis divides cytoplasm.
Protein Synthesis: DNA transcribed to RNA, translated by ribosomes to protein.

Chapter 24: Metabolism (Sections 24.3-24.4)

Metabolism includes all chemical reactions in the cell, focusing on ATP production and glucose metabolism.

ATP: Main energy currency of the cell.
Glucose Metabolism: Glycolysis (cytoplasm), citric acid/Krebs cycle (mitochondria), electron transport chain (mitochondria).
Glycogenesis: Formation of glycogen from glucose.
Gluconeogenesis: Formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
Aerobic vs Anaerobic: Aerobic (with O2) produces more ATP; anaerobic (without O2) produces less ATP.

Chapter 4: Tissues (Sections 4.1-4.5)

This chapter covers the four basic tissue types and their characteristics.

Tissue Types: Muscle, connective, neural, epithelial.
Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces; cell shapes (squamous, cuboidal, columnar); junctions (tight, gap, desmosomes); functions (protection, absorption, secretion).
Connective Tissue: Supports and binds; cell types (fibroblasts, adipocytes); fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular); functions (support, storage, transport).
Comparison: Connective tissues vary in cell type, fiber content, and function.
Cell Communication: Gap junctions (communication), tight junctions (barrier), desmosomes (adhesion).

Module 3: Integumentary and Skeletal Systems

Chapter 5: Integumentary System

The integumentary system includes skin, hair, nails, and glands, providing protection and other functions.

Functions of Skin: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, metabolic functions, excretion.
Layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis/subcutaneous (deep).
Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium; layers include stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (thick skin), corneum.
Thick vs Thin Skin: Thick skin (palms, soles) has more layers; thin skin covers most of body.
Dermis: Connective tissue; layers: papillary (loose CT), reticular (dense CT).
Glands: Eccrine (sweat, thermoregulation), apocrine (sweat, scent), sebaceous (oil).
Skin Cancer: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma.
Burns: First (epidermis), second (epidermis + dermis), third (full thickness); risks include fluid loss, infection.

Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissues

This chapter covers bone structure, function, growth, and repair.

Functions: Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation.
Osteon: Structural unit of compact bone; contains lamellae, central canal, osteocytes.
Compact vs Spongy Bone: Compact (dense, outer), spongy (porous, inner).
Bone Cells: Osteocytes (maintenance), osteoblasts (formation), osteoclasts (resorption).
Composition: Collagen (flexibility), calcium (strength).
Ossification: Intramembranous (flat bones, from mesenchyme), endochondral (long bones, from cartilage).
Epiphyseal Plate: Growth plate for lengthening bones.
Hormones: Growth hormone, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin.
Bone Resorption: Osteoclasts break down bone matrix.
Fracture Healing: Hematoma, fibrocartilaginous callus, bony callus, remodeling.

Module 4: Nervous and Muscular Systems

Chapter 11: Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

This chapter introduces the nervous system, neuron structure, and neural signaling.

CNS vs PNS: CNS (brain, spinal cord), PNS (nerves, ganglia).
Neuron Structure: Dendrites (input), axon (output), cell body (integration).
Neuron Types: Sensory (afferent), interneurons, motor (efferent).
Glial Cells: Six types; CNS (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal), PNS (Schwann, satellite).
Myelin: Insulates axons; oligodendrocytes (CNS), Schwann cells (PNS).
Resting Membrane Potential: Maintained by ion channels and pumps; typical value: .
Graded Potentials: Local changes in membrane potential; occur in dendrites/cell body.
Action Potentials: All-or-none electrical signals; occur in axons.
Ion Channels: Na+, K+ channels open/close during action potential.
Depolarization/Repolarization: Depolarization (Na+ influx), repolarization (K+ efflux).
Refractory Periods: Absolute (no AP possible), relative (AP possible with strong stimulus).
Conduction: Myelinated (fast, saltatory), unmyelinated (slow, continuous).
Synapses: Chemical (neurotransmitter release), electrical (direct ion flow).
Neurotransmitter Termination: Reuptake, enzymatic breakdown, diffusion.
EPSPs vs IPSPs: Excitatory (depolarize), inhibitory (hyperpolarize).
Acetylcholine vs Norepinephrine: Different chemical structure, receptors, and effects.

Chapter 9: Muscles and Muscle Tissue

This chapter covers muscle types, structure, contraction, and fatigue.

Muscle Types: Skeletal (voluntary, striated), cardiac (involuntary, striated), smooth (involuntary, non-striated).
Muscle Structure: Fascicle (bundle), fiber (cell), myofibril, sarcomere, myofilament (actin, myosin).
Muscle Fiber Anatomy: Sarcolemma (membrane), T-tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Sliding Filament Model: Actin and myosin slide past each other to contract muscle.
Excitation-Contraction Coupling: Neuromuscular junction, acetylcholine release, muscle fiber activation.
Muscle Contraction Terms: Tension, twitch, tone, motor unit.
Recruitment: Activation of more motor units increases force.
Muscle Twitch Graph: Latent (AP), contraction (cross-bridge), relaxation (Ca2+ removal).
Summation and Tetanus: Temporal summation (increased frequency), unfused tetanus (partial relaxation), complete tetanus (no relaxation).
Fatigue: Decreased ability to contract; causes include ATP depletion, lactic acid buildup.
Smooth Muscle: Different arrangement of myofilaments; slower contraction.

Module 5: Nervous System Divisions and CNS/PNS

Chapter 11: CNS and PNS Organization

Describes the anatomical and functional organization of the central and peripheral nervous systems.

CNS: Brain and spinal cord; integration and control.
PNS: Nerves and ganglia; communication between CNS and body.

Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System

Focuses on the structure and function of the brain and spinal cord.

Brain Structures: Cerebrum (higher functions), cerebellum (coordination), thalamus (relay), hypothalamus (homeostasis), pons, medulla (autonomic functions).
Cerebral Cortex Lobes: Frontal (motor, reasoning), parietal (sensory), temporal (hearing), occipital (vision).
Meninges: Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater; protect CNS.
Protection: Meninges, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), blood-brain barrier.
CSF: Cushions, nourishes CNS; found in ventricles, subarachnoid space.
Spinal Cord: Gray matter (cell bodies), white matter (axons), dorsal root ganglion (sensory).
Control System Components: Sensory receptors, afferent pathways, integration center, efferent pathways, effectors.

Chapter 13: Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity

Describes the role and divisions of the PNS and reflex mechanisms.

PNS Role: Connects CNS to limbs and organs.
Efferent Divisions: Autonomic (visceral motor), somatic motor, sympathetic, parasympathetic.
Reflex Arcs: Components: receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector.
Autonomic vs Somatic Reflexes: Autonomic (involuntary, smooth/cardiac muscle), somatic (voluntary, skeletal muscle).
Physiological Reflex Steps: Stimulus → input → control center → output → response.

Chapter 14: Autonomic Nervous System

Defines the ANS and its divisions, focusing on their organization and coordination.

ANS Definition: Controls involuntary functions; part of PNS.
Divisions: Sympathetic (fight or flight), parasympathetic (rest and digest).
Coordination: Both divisions regulate organ function, often with opposing effects.

Sample Table: Comparison of Muscle Types

Muscle Type	Striations	Control	Location
Skeletal	Yes	Voluntary	Attached to bones
Cardiac	Yes	Involuntary	Heart
Smooth	No	Involuntary	Walls of hollow organs

Sample Equation: Resting Membrane Potential

The Nernst equation for calculating equilibrium potential:

Example: The resting membrane potential is typically in neurons, due to the distribution of Na+ and K+ ions.

Additional info: Academic context and examples have been added to clarify and expand upon the original study guide points.