BIO 137 Anatomy I Cumulative Final Study Guide: Structured Notes

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Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

Organization of the Human Body

The human body is organized into 11 distinct organ systems, each with specific organs and functions essential for maintaining life.

Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails; protects body, regulates temperature.
Skeletal System: Bones, joints; supports and protects organs, stores minerals.
Muscular System: Skeletal muscles; movement, posture, heat production.
Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves; fast control, communication, response to stimuli.
Endocrine System: Glands (pituitary, thyroid, etc.); hormone production, slow regulation.
Cardiovascular System: Heart, blood vessels; transport of nutrients, gases, wastes.
Lymphatic System: Lymph nodes, vessels, spleen; immune defense, fluid balance.
Respiratory System: Lungs, trachea; gas exchange (O2, CO2).
Digestive System: Stomach, intestines, liver; breakdown and absorption of food.
Urinary System: Kidneys, bladder; waste removal, water/electrolyte balance.
Reproductive System: Ovaries/testes; production of offspring.

Anatomic Directions and Descriptions

Anatomic terminology describes locations and relationships of body parts.

Superior/Inferior: Above/below.
Anterior/Posterior: Front/back.
Medial/Lateral: Toward midline/away from midline.
Proximal/Distal: Near/far from origin.
Superficial/Deep: Near surface/deeper within body.

Body Planes

Three main planes divide the body for anatomical study:

Sagittal Plane: Divides body into left and right.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior and posterior.
Transverse Plane: Divides body into superior and inferior.

Body Cavities

The body contains major cavities housing organs and membranes.

Dorsal Cavity: Contains cranial (brain) and vertebral (spinal cord) cavities; lined by meninges.
Ventral Cavity: Contains thoracic (heart, lungs) and abdominopelvic (digestive, urinary, reproductive organs) cavities; lined by serous membranes (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

Chapter 2: Chemistry Comes Alive

Energy Types and Concepts

Energy is the capacity to do work, existing as kinetic (active) or potential (stored).

Chemical Energy: Stored in bonds (e.g., ATP).
Electrical Energy: Movement of charged particles (e.g., nerve impulses).
Mechanical Energy: Directly moves matter (e.g., muscle contraction).
Radiant Energy: Electromagnetic waves (e.g., sunlight).

Atomic Structure

Atoms consist of subatomic particles:

Proton: Positive charge, in nucleus.
Neutron: No charge, in nucleus.
Electron: Negative charge, orbits nucleus.

Key Terms

Isotope: Atoms of same element with different neutron numbers.
Cation: Positively charged ion.
Anion: Negatively charged ion.

Main Elements of the Human Body

Oxygen (O)
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N)

Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons.
Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons.
Hydrogen Bond: Weak attraction between H and electronegative atom.

Chemical Reactions

Synthesis: Building molecules ().
Decomposition: Breaking molecules ().
Exchange: Parts swapped ().
Oxidation/Reduction: Electron transfer.

Acids, Bases, Buffers, and pH

pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration ().
Acid: Releases H+.
Base: Accepts H+ or releases OH-.
Buffer: Stabilizes pH.

Macromolecules

Carbohydrates: Energy source; monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
Lipids: Fats, oils, phospholipids; energy storage, membranes.
Proteins: Amino acids; structure, enzymes, transport.
Nucleic Acids: DNA, RNA; genetic information.

Chapter 3: Cells: The Living Units

Cell Structure and Function

Cells are the basic units of life, with specialized structures for distinct functions.

Plasma Membrane: Boundary, regulates entry/exit.
Cytoplasm: Contains organelles.
Nucleus: Contains genetic material.

Major Organelles

Mitochondria: ATP production.
Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Smooth (lipid synthesis), Rough (protein synthesis).
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, packages proteins.
Cytoskeleton: Structural support.
Microvilli, Cilia, Flagella: Surface area, movement.

Cell Membrane Structure

Lipid Bilayer: Phospholipids, cholesterol.
Proteins: Integral, peripheral; transport, signaling.
Glycocalyx: Cell recognition.

Membrane Permeability and Transport

Selective Permeability: Allows some substances through.
Passive Transport: No energy; diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.
Active Transport: Requires energy; pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis.
Vesicular Transport: Bulk movement via vesicles.

Resting Membrane Potential

Voltage across membrane due to ion distribution.
Typical value: mV in neurons.

Gradients

Concentration Gradient: Difference in solute concentration.
Osmotic Gradient: Water movement.
Pressure Gradient: Drives fluid flow.
Electrical Gradient: Charge difference.

Channel Types

Leak Channels: Always open.
Gated Channels: Open/close in response to stimuli.
Ligand-Gated: Respond to chemicals.
Voltage-Gated: Respond to voltage changes.
Mechanically-Gated: Respond to physical deformation.

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

Interphase: Growth, DNA replication.
Mitosis: Division into two daughter cells; stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides.

Protein Synthesis

Transcription: DNA to mRNA.
Translation: mRNA to protein at ribosome.
Genetic Code: Triplet codons specify amino acids.

Chapter 24: Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance (Sections 24.3-24.4)

ATP and Cellular Metabolism

ATP is the cell's energy currency, produced via glucose metabolism.

Glycolysis: Glucose breakdown in cytoplasm; produces 2 ATP.
Krebs Cycle: Occurs in mitochondria; produces 2 ATP.
Electron Transport Chain: Mitochondria; produces up to 34 ATP.
Glycogenesis: Formation of glycogen from glucose.
Gluconeogenesis: Formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.

Aerobic vs Anaerobic Metabolism

Aerobic: Requires O2; yields up to 38 ATP per glucose.
Anaerobic: No O2; yields 2 ATP per glucose.

Chapter 4: Tissue: The Living Fabric (Sections 4.1-4.5)

Tissue Types

The body is composed of four primary tissue types.

Epithelial: Covers surfaces; protection, absorption.
Connective: Supports, binds, stores energy.
Muscle: Movement.
Nervous: Communication.

Epithelial Tissue

Characteristics: Cellularity, polarity, avascularity, regeneration.
Cell Shapes: Squamous, cuboidal, columnar.
Junctions: Tight, gap, desmosomes.
Functions: Protection, absorption, secretion.
Locations: Skin, lining of organs.

Connective Tissue

Characteristics: Few cells, abundant matrix.
Cell Types: Fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondrocytes, osteocytes.
Fibers: Collagen, elastic, reticular.
Functions: Support, protection, transport.
Locations: Bone, cartilage, blood, fat.

Types of Connective Tissue

Loose: Areolar, adipose.
Dense: Tendons, ligaments.
Cartilage: Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage.
Bone: Compact, spongy.
Blood: Fluid connective tissue.

Cell-to-Cell Communication

Gap Junctions: Allow ions and molecules to pass.
Tight Junctions: Prevent leakage.
Desmosomes: Provide mechanical strength.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Characteristics and Functions

The integumentary system protects the body and regulates internal environment.

Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, metabolic functions, excretion.
Layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (subcutaneous).
Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium.
Major Layers of Epidermis: Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (thick skin), corneum.
Thick vs Thin Skin: Thick skin (palms, soles) has all five layers; thin skin lacks stratum lucidum.
Dermis: Connective tissue; papillary (loose), reticular (dense).

Glands

Eccrine: Widely distributed; sweat for cooling.
Apocrine: Axillary/genital; sweat with proteins/lipids.
Sebaceous: Oil (sebum) for lubrication.

Pathophysiology

Skin Cancers: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma.
Burns: First-degree (epidermis), second-degree (epidermis + dermis), third-degree (full thickness).
Risks: Fluid loss, infection.
Extent: Rule of nines for body surface area.

Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissues

Bone Histology and Functions

Bones provide support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.

Osteon: Structural unit of compact bone; contains lamellae, central canal, osteocytes.
Compact vs Spongy Bone: Compact is dense, spongy has trabeculae.
Bone Cells: Osteocytes (maintenance), osteoblasts (formation), osteoclasts (resorption).
Composition: Collagen (flexibility), calcium (hardness).

Ossification

Intramembranous: Forms flat bones from mesenchyme.
Endochondral: Forms long bones from cartilage.
Epiphyseal Plate: Growth in length; cartilage replaced by bone.
Hormones: Growth hormone, thyroid hormone, sex hormones.

Bone Regulation and Repair

Osteoclasts: Resorb bone by secreting acids/enzymes.
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Stimulates osteoclasts, increases blood calcium.
Calcitonin: Inhibits osteoclasts, lowers blood calcium.
Fracture Healing: Hematoma, fibrocartilaginous callus, bony callus, remodeling.

Bone Cell	Function
Osteocyte	Maintains bone tissue
Osteoblast	Builds bone matrix
Osteoclast	Breaks down bone matrix

Example: During childhood, long bones grow via endochondral ossification at the epiphyseal plates, regulated by growth hormone.

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