BIO 163 – Exam 1 Study Guide: Anatomy & Physiology Essentials

Intro to Anatomy & Physiology

Definitions and Scope

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences for understanding the structure and function of the human body. Anatomy focuses on the physical structures, while physiology examines how these structures operate and interact.

• Anatomy: Study of body structure, including organs, tissues, and cells.

• Physiology: Study of body function, such as processes and mechanisms that sustain life.

• Relationship: Structure determines function; the form of a body part enables its job.

Levels of Organization

The human body is organized hierarchically, from the smallest chemical units to the entire organism.

• Levels: Chemical → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

• Example: Muscle cell (organelle: mitochondria) → Muscle tissue → Biceps brachii (organ) → Muscular system (organ system) → Human (organism)

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment, essential for survival.

• Definition: Regulation of internal conditions (temperature, pH, fluid balance, etc.)

• Mechanisms: Negative feedback (common), positive feedback (rare, e.g., childbirth)

• Example: Body temperature regulation via sweating or shivering

Chemistry

Atoms and Elements

Chemistry underpins all biological processes. Understanding atoms, elements, and chemical bonds is crucial for grasping physiology.

• Atom: Smallest unit of matter; contains equal numbers of protons and electrons in a neutral state.

• Isotopes: Variants of elements with different neutron numbers; some are radioactive.

• Ions: Atoms or molecules with a net electric charge due to loss or gain of electrons.

Chemical Bonds

• Covalent bond: Atoms share electrons (e.g., H2O)

• Ionic bond: Transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl)

• Hydrogen bond: Weak attraction between polar molecules; important for DNA and water properties

Water and pH

• Water: Polar molecule; forms hydrogen bonds, contributing to its stability and solvent properties.

• pH scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic), with 7 as neutral.

Metabolism

• Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules, releases energy.

• Anabolism: Synthesis of molecules, requires energy.

• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Main energy currency of the cell.

Biological Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates: Energy storage and supply (e.g., glucose, glycogen)

• Lipids: Energy storage, cell membrane structure (e.g., phospholipids, cholesterol)

• Proteins: Structure, enzymes, transport, signaling (e.g., hemoglobin, enzymes)

• Nucleic acids: Genetic information (DNA, RNA)

Enzymes

• Definition: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

• Example: Amylase breaks down starch into sugars.

Cell Biology

Cell Structure and Organelles

Cells are the basic units of life, containing specialized structures called organelles that perform distinct functions.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA); controls cell activities.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP production; "powerhouse" of the cell.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Smooth ER (lipid synthesis), Rough ER (protein synthesis via ribosomes)

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids

• Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes; breakdown of waste

Cell Membrane

• Phospholipid bilayer: Selective barrier; controls entry/exit of substances

• Transport: Passive (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) vs. active (pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis)

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• Cell Cycle: Series of events leading to cell division and replication

• Mitosis: Division of the nucleus; stages include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

• Purpose: Growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues

Cancer

• Definition: Uncontrolled cell division; can form tumors (benign or malignant)

• Causes: Mutations, carcinogens (e.g., chemicals, radiation, viruses)

• Treatments: Surgery, chemotherapy, radiation

Lab Material

Lab Review

• Review all lab handouts in detail; focus on practical applications and identification of structures.

Additional Key Topics

• Cell Structure: Nucleus, mitochondria, ER, ribosomes, etc.

• pH Scale: Acid, neutral, base

• Body Cavities & Regions: Organization of the body into anatomical compartments

• Cell Cycle & Mitosis Stages: Sequence and significance of each stage

Table: Comparison of Chemical Bonds

Bond Type	Description	Example
Covalent	Atoms share electrons	Water (H2O)
Ionic	Atoms transfer electrons	Sodium chloride (NaCl)
Hydrogen	Weak attraction between polar molecules	Between water molecules

Key Equations

• ATP Hydrolysis:

$\text{ATP} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P}_i + \text{energy}$

• pH Calculation:

$\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[\text{H}^+]$

• General Reaction Rate (Enzyme):

$\text{Rate} = k[\text{Enzyme}][\text{Substrate}]$

Additional info: Academic context and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness.