BIO 210: Comprehensive Study Guide for Anatomy & Physiology I

Orientation to Anatomy & Physiology (Ch 1)

Key Anatomical Terms and Concepts

• Abdomen: The region of the body between the thorax and pelvis, containing digestive organs.

• Abdominal cavity: The space within the abdomen that houses organs such as the stomach, liver, and intestines.

• Anatomical position: The standard reference position in which the body stands upright, facing forward, arms at the sides with palms facing forward.

• Anterior: Refers to the front of the body; synonymous with ventral in humans.

• Posterior: Refers to the back of the body; synonymous with dorsal in humans.

• Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

• Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.

• Superior: Toward the head or upper part of a structure.

• Inferior: Away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure.

• Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or origin.

• Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or origin.

• Superficial: Toward or at the body surface.

• Deep: Away from the body surface; more internal.

• Planes of the body:

  • Coronal (frontal) plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

  • Sagittal plane: Divides the body into right and left parts; the midsagittal plane divides it into equal halves.

  • Transverse plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.

• Body cavities:

  • Dorsal cavity: Contains the cranial and spinal cavities.

  • Ventral cavity: Contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

  • Cranial cavity: Houses the brain.

  • Thoracic cavity: Contains the heart and lungs.

  • Abdominopelvic cavity: Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities.

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Negative feedback: A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive feedback: A mechanism that amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

• Control center: Processes information and determines the response in a feedback system.

• Effector: Carries out the response directed by the control center.

• Receptor: Detects changes in the environment (stimuli).

• Set point: The ideal value for a physiological parameter (e.g., body temperature).

• Dynamic equilibrium: Fluctuations around a set point within a normal range.

Example:

When body temperature rises above normal, receptors in the skin and brain detect the change, the hypothalamus (control center) triggers sweat glands (effectors) to cool the body, restoring homeostasis.

Cells, Tissues, and Membranes (Ch 3 & 4)

Major Tissue Types and Skin Structure

• Epithelial tissues: Sheets of cells that cover surfaces and line cavities; classified by cell shape and layers (e.g., simple squamous, stratified cuboidal).

• Connective tissues: Support, bind, and protect organs (e.g., adipose, areolar, dense connective tissue, cartilage, bone, blood).

• Muscle tissues: Specialized for contraction (skeletal, cardiac, smooth).

• Nervous tissues: Conduct electrical impulses; found in brain, spinal cord, nerves.

• Cutaneous membrane: The skin; composed of epidermis (epithelial) and dermis (connective tissue).

• Epidermis: Outer layer of skin; contains layers such as stratum basale, stratum corneum, and others.

• Dermis: Middle layer; contains papillary and reticular regions, blood vessels, nerves, and glands.

• Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue): Deepest layer; stores fat and anchors skin to underlying tissues.

• Glands:

  • Sudoriferous (sweat) glands: Eccrine (all over body, thermoregulation) and apocrine (axillary/genital, active at puberty).

  • Sebaceous (oil) glands: Secrete sebum to lubricate skin and hair.

• Membranes:

  • Mucous membranes: Line body cavities open to the exterior.

  • Serous membranes: Line closed body cavities; have parietal and visceral layers with serous fluid between.

Example:

The stratum basale is the deepest layer of the epidermis, responsible for cell division and regeneration.

The Skeletal System (Ch 5)

Bone Structure, Classification, and Joints

• Axial skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.

• Appendicular skeleton: Limbs and girdles (pectoral and pelvic).

• Bone types: Long (e.g., femur), short (e.g., carpals), flat (e.g., sternum), irregular (e.g., vertebrae), sesamoid (e.g., patella).

• Compact bone: Dense outer layer; provides strength.

• Spongy bone: Porous inner layer; contains red marrow.

• Diaphysis: Shaft of a long bone.

• Epiphyses: Ends of long bones; contain spongy bone.

• Periosteum: Membrane covering bone surface.

• Articulation (joint): Where two bones meet; classified by structure and function.

• Synovial joints: Freely movable; contain synovial fluid (e.g., hinge, ball-and-socket, pivot, saddle, plane, condylar).

• Cartilaginous joints: Bones joined by cartilage (e.g., intervertebral discs).

• Fibrous joints: Bones joined by dense connective tissue (e.g., sutures of the skull).

• Bone remodeling: Ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue.

Example:

The humerus is a long bone of the upper arm, articulating with the scapula at the shoulder joint.

The Muscular System (Ch 6)

Muscle Structure and Physiology

• Skeletal muscle: Voluntary, striated muscle attached to bones.

• Muscle fiber: A single muscle cell; contains myofibrils composed of myofilaments (actin and myosin).

• Sarcomere: The functional unit of muscle contraction; defined by Z lines.

• Neuromuscular junction: The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber.

• Acetylcholine (ACh): Neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle contraction.

• ATP: The energy source for muscle contraction.

• Muscle contraction: Involves the sliding filament mechanism; calcium ions and ATP are essential.

• Isotonic contraction: Muscle changes length (e.g., lifting a weight).

• Isometric contraction: Muscle tension increases, but length does not change (e.g., holding a weight steady).

• Prime mover: Main muscle responsible for a movement.

• Antagonist: Muscle that opposes the prime mover.

• Synergist: Assists the prime mover.

• Fixator: Stabilizes the origin of the prime mover.

Example:

The biceps brachii is the prime mover for elbow flexion, while the triceps brachii acts as the antagonist.

The Nervous System (Ch 7)

Organization and Function

• Central nervous system (CNS): Brain and spinal cord; processes information.

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS; connects CNS to limbs and organs.

• Neuron: The functional cell of the nervous system; consists of cell body, dendrites, and axon.

• Glia (glial cells): Support, protect, and nourish neurons.

• Action potential: An electrical impulse that travels along the axon; basis for nerve signaling.

  • Resting membrane potential: $V_{rest} \approx -70\ \mathrm{mV}$

  • Depolarization: $Na^+$ influx makes the inside more positive.

  • Repolarization: $K^+$ efflux restores negativity.

• Synapse: Junction between two neurons; neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft.

• Reflex arc: The neural pathway for a reflex; includes receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, and effector.

Example:

Touching a hot object triggers a withdrawal reflex via a simple reflex arc.

Special Senses (Ch 8)

Overview of Sensory Systems

• Special senses: Vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, and smell.

• Eye structures: Cornea, lens, retina, optic nerve, and accessory structures (e.g., lacrimal apparatus).

• Ear structures: Outer ear (auricle, external acoustic meatus), middle ear (ossicles), inner ear (cochlea, vestibular apparatus).

• Photoreceptors: Rods (dim light, black and white) and cones (color vision) in the retina.

• Olfactory receptors: Detect smell in the nasal cavity.

• Gustatory cells: Taste receptors on the tongue.

Example:

The cochlea in the inner ear converts sound vibrations into nerve impulses.

The Endocrine System (Ch 9)

Hormones and Glands

• Endocrine glands: Ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream (e.g., pituitary, thyroid, adrenal).

• Hormones: Chemical messengers that regulate physiological processes.

• Negative feedback regulation: Maintains hormone levels within a normal range.

• Major hormones:

  • Insulin: Lowers blood glucose.

  • Glucagon: Raises blood glucose.

  • Thyroid hormone: Regulates metabolism.

  • Adrenaline (epinephrine): Prepares body for 'fight or flight'.

Example:

Low blood calcium stimulates the parathyroid glands to release parathyroid hormone, which increases blood calcium levels.

Blood (Ch 10)

Composition and Function

• Blood: Connective tissue composed of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets).

• Plasma: Liquid matrix; contains water, proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen), nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

• Erythrocytes (red blood cells): Transport oxygen via hemoglobin.

• Leukocytes (white blood cells): Defend against infection; include granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes).

• Platelets: Cell fragments involved in blood clotting.

• ABO blood groups: Determined by presence of A and B antigens on RBCs.

• Rh factor: Presence (+) or absence (−) of Rh antigen.

Example:

Type O negative blood is the universal donor; type AB positive is the universal recipient.

Cardiovascular System (Ch 11)

Heart and Blood Vessels

• Heart chambers: Right and left atria, right and left ventricles.

• Valves: Atrioventricular (tricuspid, bicuspid/mitral) and semilunar (pulmonary, aortic) valves prevent backflow.

• Cardiac cycle: Sequence of events in one heartbeat; includes systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation).

• Blood vessels: Arteries (carry blood away from heart), veins (toward heart), capillaries (exchange vessels).

• Blood pressure: Force of blood against vessel walls; measured as systolic/diastolic pressure (e.g., 120/80 mmHg).

• Cardiac output: Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute.

  • Formula: $CO = HR \times SV$

  • Where $CO$ = cardiac output, $HR$ = heart rate, $SV$ = stroke volume.

Example:

The aorta is the largest artery, carrying oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body.

Lymphatic System & Body Defenses (Ch 12)

Immunity and Lymphatic Organs

• Lymphatic system: Returns interstitial fluid to the bloodstream and provides immune defense.

• Lymph nodes: Filter lymph and house lymphocytes.

• Spleen, thymus, tonsils: Major lymphatic organs.

• Innate (nonspecific) immunity: First and second lines of defense (e.g., skin, inflammation, phagocytes).

• Adaptive (specific) immunity: Third line of defense; involves B cells (antibody-mediated) and T cells (cell-mediated).

• Antibodies (immunoglobulins): Proteins that bind specific antigens.

Example:

Vaccination provides artificially acquired active immunity by stimulating antibody production.

Respiratory System (Ch 13)

Structure and Function

• Major structures: Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli.

• Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.

• Inspiration: Diaphragm and external intercostals contract, increasing thoracic volume and drawing air in.

• Expiration: Muscles relax, thoracic volume decreases, air is expelled.

• Gas exchange: Oxygen diffuses into blood, carbon dioxide diffuses out.

Example:

During exercise, respiratory rate and tidal volume increase to meet oxygen demand.

Digestive System & Body Metabolism (Ch 14)

Digestive Processes and Organs

• Alimentary canal: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus.

• Accessory organs: Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

• Major processes: Ingestion, propulsion, mechanical breakdown, chemical digestion, absorption, elimination.

• Enzymes: Amylase (carbohydrates), lipase (fats), proteases (proteins).

• Metabolism: Sum of all chemical reactions in the body; includes anabolism (building) and catabolism (breaking down).

Example:

The small intestine is the primary site for nutrient absorption.

Urinary System (Ch 15)

Filtration and Fluid Balance

• Kidneys: Filter blood, remove waste, regulate fluid and electrolyte balance.

• Nephron: Functional unit of the kidney; consists of glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, tubules.

• Urine formation: Involves filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

• Acid-base balance: Kidneys regulate blood pH by excreting hydrogen ions and reabsorbing bicarbonate.

Example:

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, reducing urine output.

Reproductive System (Ch 16)

Structures and Functions

• Male reproductive system: Testes (produce sperm and testosterone), ducts (epididymis, vas deferens), accessory glands (prostate, seminal vesicles), penis.

• Female reproductive system: Ovaries (produce ova and hormones), uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia.

• Gametogenesis: Spermatogenesis (sperm production) and oogenesis (egg production).

• Hormonal regulation: Involves FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone.

• Fertilization: Fusion of sperm and egg to form a zygote.

Example:

Ovulation is triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) during the ovarian cycle.

Additional info: This guide is based on the provided checklist terms and expands them into academic explanations suitable for introductory college-level Anatomy & Physiology. For each chapter, only representative terms are explained; students should refer to their textbook for more detailed coverage of each term.