BIO 215 Final Exam Study Guide: Anatomy and Physiology Core Concepts

Bones and Skeletal System

Structures of Common Long Bone

Long bones are characterized by a central shaft and two ends. They are essential for movement and support.

• Diaphysis: The shaft of the bone, composed mainly of compact bone.

• Epiphyses: The ends of the bone, containing spongy bone and red marrow.

• Metaphysis: The region between diaphysis and epiphysis; contains the growth plate in children.

• Medullary Cavity: Central cavity containing yellow marrow (fat storage).

• Periosteum: Dense connective tissue covering the bone's outer surface.

• Endosteum: Thin membrane lining the medullary cavity.

Example: The femur is a classic example of a long bone.

Bone Tissue

• Compact Bone: Dense, strong outer layer; provides strength.

• Spongy Bone: Porous, found at ends of long bones; contains red marrow.

Anatomy of Spinal Column (Cord & Vertebrae)

• Vertebrae: 33 bones divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions.

• Spinal Cord: Runs through vertebral foramen; transmits neural signals.

Knee Joint

• Type: Synovial hinge joint.

• Main Structures: Femur, tibia, patella, menisci, ligaments (ACL, PCL, MCL, LCL).

• Function: Allows flexion and extension of the leg.

Muscle Tissue and Muscular System

Basic Steps of Muscle Contraction

Muscle contraction is initiated by nerve impulses and involves several key steps:

1. Action Potential: Nerve impulse reaches neuromuscular junction.

2. Release of Acetylcholine (ACh): Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft.

3. Depolarization: Muscle fiber membrane depolarizes.

4. Calcium Release: Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum.

5. Cross-Bridge Formation: Myosin heads bind to actin.

6. Power Stroke: Myosin pulls actin, shortening the sarcomere.

7. ATP Binding: Myosin releases actin, cycle repeats.

Equation: $\text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P}_i + \text{energy}$

Growth and Atrophy of Skeletal Muscle

• Hypertrophy: Increase in muscle fiber size due to exercise.

• Atrophy: Decrease in muscle size due to disuse or disease.

Parts of Muscle Fiber

• Sarcolemma: Muscle cell membrane.

• Sarcoplasm: Cytoplasm of muscle cell.

• Myofibrils: Contractile elements containing actin and myosin.

• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores calcium ions.

Nervous System Organization

Organization of Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cranial and spinal nerves.

• Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.

• Autonomic Nervous System: Involuntary control (sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions).

Transmitters and Receptors for Sympathetic and Parasympathetic System

• Sympathetic: Neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine; Receptors: Adrenergic (alpha, beta).

• Parasympathetic: Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine; Receptors: Muscarinic and nicotinic.

Cranial Nerves: Names and Numbers

Number	Name	Function
I	Olfactory	Smell
II	Optic	Vision
III	Oculomotor	Eye movement
IV	Trochlear	Eye movement
V	Trigeminal	Facial sensation, chewing
VI	Abducens	Eye movement
VII	Facial	Facial expression, taste
VIII	Vestibulocochlear	Hearing, balance
IX	Glossopharyngeal	Taste, swallowing
X	Vagus	Viscera control
XI	Accessory	Neck muscles
XII	Hypoglossal	Tongue movement

Brain and Brainstem Anatomy and Function

• Cerebrum: Higher brain functions (thought, memory).

• Cerebellum: Coordination and balance.

• Brainstem: Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata; controls vital functions.

Blood Brain Barrier: Structure and Function

• Structure: Tight junctions between endothelial cells of CNS capillaries.

• Function: Protects brain from toxins, maintains stable environment.

Meninges

• Dura Mater: Tough outer layer.

• Arachnoid Mater: Web-like middle layer.

• Pia Mater: Delicate inner layer adhering to brain/spinal cord.

Tissue Types

Functions & General Locations

• Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines cavities (skin, GI tract).

• Connective: Supports, binds (bone, blood, cartilage).

• Muscle: Movement (skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle).

• Nervous: Transmits impulses (brain, nerves).

Macromolecules

Functions, Structures, and Unique Characteristics

• Carbohydrates: Energy source; monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.

• Lipids: Energy storage, insulation; triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.

• Proteins: Structure, enzymes, transport; made of amino acids.

• Nucleic Acids: Genetic information; DNA and RNA.

DNA Structure and Function

Replication, Transcription, Translation

• Replication: DNA makes a copy of itself.

• Transcription: DNA to mRNA in nucleus.

• Translation: mRNA to protein at ribosome.

Equation: $\text{DNA} \xrightarrow{\text{transcription}} \text{mRNA} \xrightarrow{\text{translation}} \text{Protein}$

Cell Membrane Transport

Types of Movement (Active and Passive)

• Passive Transport: No energy required (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).

• Active Transport: Requires energy (Na-K pump, endocytosis, exocytosis).

Importance of Na-K Pump

• Maintains resting membrane potential.

• Pumps 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in per ATP used.

Equation: $3\ \text{Na}^+_{\text{out}} + 2\ \text{K}^+_{\text{in}} + \text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P}_i$

Directional and Movement Terms

Directional Terms

• Superior/Inferior: Above/below.

• Anterior/Posterior: Front/back.

• Medial/Lateral: Toward midline/away from midline.

• Proximal/Distal: Closer to/farther from trunk.

Movement Terms

• Flexion/Extension: Decrease/increase angle at joint.

• Abduction/Adduction: Away from/toward midline.

• Rotation: Movement around axis.

Planes of Human Body

• Sagittal: Divides body into left/right.

• Coronal (Frontal): Divides body into anterior/posterior.

• Transverse: Divides body into superior/inferior.

Sensory Systems

Sensory Receptors: Location and Function

• Mechanoreceptors: Touch, pressure (skin).

• Photoreceptors: Light (retina).

• Chemoreceptors: Chemicals (taste buds, olfactory).

• Thermoreceptors: Temperature (skin).

• Nociceptors: Pain (throughout body).

Basic Anatomy of Eye and Ear

• Eye: Cornea, lens, retina, optic nerve.

• Ear: Outer (pinna), middle (ossicles), inner (cochlea, vestibular apparatus).

Common Eye Disorders

• Macular Degeneration: Loss of central vision.

• Glaucoma: Increased intraocular pressure damages optic nerve.

• Diplopia: Double vision.

• Cataract: Clouding of lens.

• Myopia: Nearsightedness.

• Retinal Detachment: Retina separates from underlying tissue.

Skin and Integumentary System

Anatomy of Skin

• Epidermis: Outer layer; keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

• Dermis: Middle layer; connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves.

• Hypodermis: Subcutaneous fat layer.

Vitamin D Synthesis

• UV light converts 7-dehydrocholesterol in skin to vitamin D3.

• Vitamin D is essential for calcium absorption.

Homeostasis and Feedback

Homeostasis and Negative Feedback

• Calcium: Parathyroid hormone increases blood Ca2+; calcitonin decreases it.

• Glucose: Insulin lowers, glucagon raises blood glucose.

• Temperature: Sweating and shivering regulate body temperature.

Inflammatory Response and Tissue Healing

Steps of Inflammatory Response

1. Vasodilation and increased permeability.

2. Phagocyte migration.

3. Tissue repair and healing.

Synovial Fluid and Joints

Synovial Fluid: Composition, Location, Function

• Composition: Hyaluronic acid, lubricin, water, proteins.

• Location: Synovial joints (e.g., knee, shoulder).

• Function: Lubricates, nourishes cartilage, reduces friction.

Cellular and Molecular Concepts

Bonds Between Molecules

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl).

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons (e.g., H2O).

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions (e.g., between water molecules).

Importance of Ions (Na, K, Ca)

• Sodium (Na+): Major extracellular cation; nerve impulse transmission.

• Potassium (K+): Major intracellular cation; resting membrane potential.

• Calcium (Ca2+): Muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, bone structure.

• Anions: Chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-).

Selected Disorders

Definitions

• DM (Diabetes Mellitus): Disorder of glucose metabolism due to insulin deficiency or resistance.

• MS (Multiple Sclerosis): Autoimmune demyelination of CNS neurons.

• Alopecia: Hair loss.

• Rheumatoid Arthritis: Autoimmune inflammation of joints.

• Psoriasis: Chronic skin disorder with rapid cell turnover.

*Additional info: Some explanations and context have been expanded for clarity and completeness as per academic standards.*