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BIO 2460 Exam 2 Study Guide – Step-by-Step Guidance

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Study Guide - Smart Notes

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Q1. Describe the primary functions of the lymphatic system.

Background

Topic: Lymphatic System Functions

This question tests your understanding of the main roles the lymphatic system plays in the body, especially in immunity and fluid balance.

Key Terms:

  • Lymphatic system

  • Immunity

  • Fluid balance

  • Absorption of dietary fats

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Start by recalling the three main functions of the lymphatic system. Think about how it helps maintain fluid levels, supports immune defense, and assists in nutrient absorption.

  2. For each function, write a brief explanation. For example, how does the lymphatic system return interstitial fluid to the bloodstream?

  3. Consider how the lymphatic system is involved in filtering pathogens and supporting immune cells.

  4. Think about the role of lymphatic vessels in absorbing fats from the digestive tract.

Try summarizing these functions in your own words before checking the answer!

Q2. Define: lymph, cytotoxic, NK cell, B cell, T cell, tonsil, interleukins, interferons, cytokines, antigen, antibody, lymphoid organs, lymphatic tissue.

Background

Topic: Immune System Terminology

This question checks your knowledge of key terms related to the lymphatic and immune systems.

Key Terms:

  • Lymph: Fluid transported by lymphatic vessels

  • Cytotoxic: Refers to cells that kill other cells

  • NK cell: Natural Killer cell

  • B cell: Lymphocyte producing antibodies

  • T cell: Lymphocyte involved in cell-mediated immunity

  • Tonsil: Lymphoid tissue in the pharynx

  • Interleukins, Interferons, Cytokines: Immune signaling molecules

  • Antigen: Substance that triggers immune response

  • Antibody: Protein that binds antigens

  • Lymphoid organs: Organs involved in immunity (e.g., spleen, thymus)

  • Lymphatic tissue: Tissue containing lymphocytes

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Go through each term and write a concise definition in your own words.

  2. For cells (e.g., B cell, T cell, NK cell), note their main function in immunity.

  3. For molecules (e.g., interleukins, interferons), describe their role in immune signaling.

  4. For structures (e.g., tonsil, lymphoid organs), identify their location and function.

Try defining each term before checking the answer!

Q3. Differentiate between Innate (nonspecific) and Adaptive (specific) Immunity.

Background

Topic: Types of Immunity

This question tests your ability to distinguish between the two main branches of the immune system.

Key Terms:

  • Innate immunity: Non-specific, immediate defense mechanisms

  • Adaptive immunity: Specific, slower response with memory

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. List the main characteristics of innate immunity (e.g., barriers, phagocytes, rapid response).

  2. List the main characteristics of adaptive immunity (e.g., specificity, memory, B and T cells).

  3. Compare how each system recognizes and responds to pathogens.

  4. Think of examples of each type of immunity in action.

Try outlining the differences before checking the answer!

Q4. List the innate (non-adaptive/non-specific) defenses our body uses to protect itself from pathogens.

Background

Topic: Innate Immune Defenses

This question asks you to recall the various non-specific defense mechanisms the body uses to prevent infection.

Key Terms:

  • Physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes)

  • Chemical barriers (enzymes, acids)

  • Cellular defenses (phagocytes, NK cells)

  • Inflammation, fever

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. List the physical barriers and explain how they prevent pathogen entry.

  2. Identify chemical defenses and their roles (e.g., lysozyme in saliva, stomach acid).

  3. Describe the role of phagocytic cells and NK cells in innate immunity.

  4. Mention the importance of inflammation and fever as innate responses.

Try listing all the defenses you can think of before checking the answer!

Q5. Describe the 3 lines of defense: innate (membranes), innate (proteins and phagosomes), adaptive (B and T cells).

Background

Topic: Immune System Lines of Defense

This question tests your understanding of the body's layered defense strategy against pathogens.

Key Terms:

  • First line: Physical and chemical barriers

  • Second line: Internal defenses (cells, proteins)

  • Third line: Adaptive immunity (B and T cells)

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Describe what constitutes the first line of defense (e.g., skin, mucous membranes).

  2. Explain the second line, focusing on internal cellular and protein defenses.

  3. Outline the third line, emphasizing the role of B and T lymphocytes.

  4. For each line, give an example of how it protects the body.

Try organizing your answer by each line of defense before checking the answer!

Q6. Identify the roles of these cells in the immune system: NK cells, B-cells, T-cells, APCs.

Background

Topic: Immune Cell Functions

This question asks you to describe the specific roles of key immune cells.

Key Terms:

  • NK cells: Natural killer cells

  • B-cells: Antibody production

  • T-cells: Cell-mediated immunity

  • APCs: Antigen-presenting cells

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. For each cell type, write a brief description of its main function.

  2. Explain how NK cells target abnormal cells.

  3. Describe how B-cells produce antibodies and provide memory.

  4. Discuss the different types of T-cells and their roles (helper, cytotoxic, suppressor, memory).

  5. Explain how APCs activate T-cells by presenting antigens.

Try matching each cell type to its function before checking the answer!

Q7. Identify the structures of a lymph node on a diagram.

Background

Topic: Lymph Node Anatomy

This question tests your ability to recognize and label the main parts of a lymph node.

Key Terms:

  • Cortex

  • Medulla

  • Afferent/efferent vessels

  • Germinal centers

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Review a diagram of a lymph node and locate the cortex and medulla.

  2. Identify where afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels enter and exit.

  3. Find the germinal centers within the cortex.

  4. Label the capsule and trabeculae if present.

Try labeling a blank diagram before checking the answer!

Q8. Describe the properties of Adaptive (Specific) Immunity that distinguish it from innate (nonspecific) defense: specificity, memory.

Background

Topic: Adaptive Immunity Properties

This question focuses on what makes adaptive immunity unique compared to innate immunity.

Key Terms:

  • Specificity

  • Memory

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Define specificity and explain how adaptive immunity targets particular antigens.

  2. Describe memory and how it leads to a faster, stronger response upon re-exposure.

  3. Contrast these properties with innate immunity.

Try explaining these properties in your own words before checking the answer!

Q9. Describe the two types of Adaptive (Specific) Immunity: Cell-mediated and Antibody-mediated.

Background

Topic: Types of Adaptive Immunity

This question asks you to distinguish between the two branches of adaptive immunity and their main features.

Key Terms:

  • Cell-mediated immunity (CMI)

  • Antibody-mediated immunity (AMI)

  • T cells

  • B cells

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Define cell-mediated immunity and identify the main cell type involved.

  2. Define antibody-mediated immunity and identify the main cell type involved.

  3. Describe the types of pathogens each branch is most effective against.

  4. Give an example of each type of response.

Try outlining the differences before checking the answer!

Q10. Describe the “training” of a T-cell. Where does this occur? How must the antigen be presented? What tests (1st and 2nd signal) must a T-cell pass before it is allowed to reproduce (clone)?

Background

Topic: T-cell Maturation and Activation

This question tests your understanding of how T-cells become immunocompetent and are activated.

Key Terms:

  • Thymus

  • Antigen presentation

  • MHC molecules

  • Co-stimulation (second signal)

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Describe where T-cells mature and what happens during this process.

  2. Explain how antigens must be presented to T-cells (MHC I or II).

  3. Identify the two signals required for T-cell activation (antigen recognition and co-stimulation).

  4. Discuss what happens if a T-cell does not receive both signals.

Try summarizing the process before checking the answer!

Q11. Describe the different types of antibodies (IgA, IgG, IgM, IgD, IgE). Which one comes first?

Background

Topic: Antibody Classes

This question asks you to identify the main classes of antibodies and their roles.

Key Terms:

  • IgA, IgG, IgM, IgD, IgE

  • Primary and secondary immune response

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. List each antibody class and its main function or location.

  2. Identify which antibody is produced first during a primary immune response.

  3. Describe the roles of the other antibody classes.

Try matching each antibody to its function before checking the answer!

Q12. How do interferons warn neighboring cells of viral infection?

Background

Topic: Interferons and Antiviral Defense

This question tests your understanding of how interferons help limit viral spread.

Key Terms:

  • Interferons

  • Antiviral proteins

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Describe what happens when a cell is infected by a virus.

  2. Explain how interferons are released and their effect on neighboring cells.

  3. Discuss how this process helps prevent viral replication.

Try explaining the process before checking the answer!

Q13. What cells display CD4 receptor (marker)? What cells display CD8 receptor (marker)?

Background

Topic: T-cell Subtypes

This question asks you to identify which T-cell subtypes express CD4 and CD8 markers.

Key Terms:

  • CD4: Helper T cells

  • CD8: Cytotoxic T cells

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Recall the main types of T-cells and their surface markers.

  2. Match CD4 and CD8 to the correct T-cell subtype.

  3. Consider the function of each subtype in the immune response.

Try matching the markers before checking the answer!

Q14. Which virus targets CD4 receptors to invade T-cells?

Background

Topic: Viral Pathogenesis

This question tests your knowledge of viruses that specifically infect CD4+ T-cells.

Key Terms:

  • HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)

  • CD4+ T-cells

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Recall which virus is known for targeting the immune system, specifically CD4+ T-cells.

  2. Think about the consequences of this infection for immune function.

Try recalling the virus before checking the answer!

Q15. What parts of the adaptive immune response are cell-mediated?

Background

Topic: Adaptive Immunity Branches

This question asks you to identify which components of adaptive immunity involve direct cellular action.

Key Terms:

  • Cell-mediated immunity

  • T-cells

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. List the main cell types involved in cell-mediated immunity.

  2. Describe the types of pathogens targeted by this response.

  3. Give examples of cell-mediated immune actions.

Try listing the components before checking the answer!

Q16. What parts of the adaptive immune response are antibody-mediated?

Background

Topic: Adaptive Immunity Branches

This question asks you to identify which components of adaptive immunity involve antibodies.

Key Terms:

  • Antibody-mediated immunity

  • B-cells

  • Plasma cells

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. List the main cell types involved in antibody-mediated immunity.

  2. Describe the types of pathogens targeted by this response.

  3. Give examples of antibody-mediated immune actions.

Try listing the components before checking the answer!

Q17. What types of cells have to get together to make this happen?

Background

Topic: Immune Cell Interactions

This question tests your understanding of the cooperation between different immune cells during an immune response.

Key Terms:

  • Helper T cells

  • B cells

  • APCs

  • Cytotoxic T cells

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Identify the main cell types involved in initiating and carrying out immune responses.

  2. Describe how these cells interact (e.g., antigen presentation, co-stimulation).

  3. Explain why cooperation is necessary for effective immunity.

Try outlining the interactions before checking the answer!

Q18. Describe the primary functions of the respiratory system.

Background

Topic: Respiratory System Functions

This question tests your understanding of the main roles of the respiratory system in the body.

Key Terms:

  • Gas exchange

  • pH regulation

  • Sound production

  • Olfaction

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. List the main functions of the respiratory system.

  2. For each function, write a brief explanation (e.g., how gas exchange occurs in the alveoli).

  3. Consider additional roles such as sound production and olfaction.

Try summarizing these functions before checking the answer!

Q19. Describe the structure of the larynx, and understand its roles in normal breathing and in sound production.

Background

Topic: Larynx Anatomy and Function

This question asks you to describe the anatomy of the larynx and its dual roles.

Key Terms:

  • Larynx

  • Vocal cords

  • Glottis

  • Epiglottis

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Identify the main anatomical structures of the larynx.

  2. Explain how the larynx functions during breathing.

  3. Describe how the larynx produces sound.

Try outlining the structure and functions before checking the answer!

Q20. Define and compare the processes of external respiration and internal respiration.

Background

Topic: Respiration Processes

This question tests your understanding of the different stages of gas exchange in the body.

Key Terms:

  • External respiration

  • Internal respiration

  • Gas exchange

Step-by-Step Guidance

  1. Define external respiration and where it occurs.

  2. Define internal respiration and where it occurs.

  3. Compare the two processes in terms of location and function.

Try defining and comparing these processes before checking the answer!

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