BIOL 2113 Final Exam Review: Comprehensive Study Notes for Anatomy & Physiology

Chapter 1 – The Human Body: An Orientation

Levels of Structural Organization

The human body is organized into six hierarchical levels, from simplest to most complex:

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules (e.g., water, proteins) form the basis of all matter.

• Cellular Level: The basic unit of life; cells (e.g., muscle cell) carry out specialized functions.

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function (e.g., muscle tissue).

• Organ Level: Two or more tissues working together for a specific function (e.g., heart).

• Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together (e.g., cardiovascular system).

• Organism Level: All organ systems together form a living human.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes. For example, keeping body temperature at approximately 98.6°F.

Anatomical Position

The anatomical position is a standard reference: body upright, feet together, arms at sides, palms forward, eyes forward. It is essential for consistent use of directional terms and descriptions.

Serous Membranes

Serous membranes are double-layered membranes lining closed body cavities and covering organs. The parietal layer lines the cavity wall; the visceral layer covers the organ. They secrete serous fluid to reduce friction. Examples include:

• Pleura: Lungs

• Pericardium: Heart

• Peritoneum: Abdomen

Chapter 2 – Chemistry Comes Alive

Elements and Atoms

Element: A pure substance made of only one type of atom (e.g., carbon, oxygen).

Atom: The smallest unit of an element; consists of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Chemical Bonds

• Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons between atoms; one atom gains, one loses (e.g., NaCl).

• Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons; can be polar (unequal sharing) or nonpolar (equal sharing).

• Hydrogen Bond: Weak attraction between polar molecules (e.g., water molecules bonding).

Properties of Water

• Polarity: Universal solvent; dissolves many substances.

• High Heat Capacity: Resists temperature changes.

• Cohesion/Adhesion: Supports transport in biological systems.

• Reactivity: Participates in chemical reactions.

pH Scale

The pH scale measures hydrogen ion concentration from 0–14:

• Neutral: pH 7 (e.g., pure water)

• Acidic: Below 7 (more H+ ions)

• Basic/Alkaline: Above 7 (more OH- ions)

Biological Molecules

Type	Function	Monomer	Bond
Carbohydrates	Quick energy	Monosaccharides (glucose)	Glycosidic bond
Lipids	Long-term energy, cell membranes, hormones	Fatty acids & glycerol	Ester bond
Proteins	Structure, enzymes, transport, immunity	Amino acids	Peptide bond
Nucleic Acids	Genetic info, protein synthesis	Nucleotides	Phosphodiester bond

DNA Structure and Function

Structure: Double helix of two nucleotide strands (sugar + phosphate + nitrogenous base). Base pairs: A-T and G-C.

Function: Stores genetic information for building proteins. Genetic info is encoded in the sequence of nitrogenous bases (A, T, G, C).

Chapter 3 – Cells: The Living Units

Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins (fluid mosaic model). It controls entry/exit of substances and enables cell communication.

• Hydrophilic head: Polar, faces watery environments.

• Hydrophobic tail: Nonpolar, faces interior of membrane.

Cell Junctions

• Tight Junctions: Seal adjacent cells; prevent leakage (e.g., intestinal lining).

• Desmosomes: Anchor cells; resist mechanical stress (e.g., skin).

• Gap Junctions: Channels for ions/small molecules (e.g., heart muscle).

Transport Mechanisms

• Passive Transport: No energy; moves from high to low concentration (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).

• Active Transport: Requires ATP; moves from low to high concentration (sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis).

Cell Organelles

• Nucleus: Control center; contains DNA.

• Mitochondria: Produce ATP via cellular respiration.

• Lysosomes: Digest waste, debris, pathogens.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis; free or on rough ER.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough ER (protein synthesis), Smooth ER (lipid synthesis, detoxification).

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• Interphase: Cell grows, replicates DNA, prepares for division (G1, S, G2).

• Mitotic Phase: Cell divides via mitosis and cytokinesis.

Purpose of mitosis: Produce two genetically identical daughter cells for growth and repair.

Phases of mitosis:

1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, spindle forms.

2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at cell center.

3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids pulled to opposite poles.

4. Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform, cell divides.

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA template produces mRNA (nucleus).

• Translation: mRNA read by ribosomes to assemble protein from amino acids (cytoplasm).

Chapter 4 – Tissue: The Living Fabric

Primary Tissue Types

• Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands (e.g., skin, intestinal lining).

• Connective: Supports, binds, protects (e.g., bone, blood, cartilage, fat).

• Muscle: Produces movement (skeletal, cardiac, smooth).

• Nervous: Communication and control (brain, spinal cord, nerves).

Epithelial Tissue Types

• Simple: Single layer; diffusion/secretion (e.g., alveoli).

• Stratified: Multiple layers; protection (e.g., skin).

• Pseudostratified: Appears layered; all cells touch basement membrane (e.g., respiratory tract).

• Transitional: Stretches/recoils; changes shape (e.g., urinary bladder).

Glands

• Endocrine: Ductless; secrete hormones into bloodstream (e.g., thyroid, adrenal).

• Exocrine: Have ducts; secrete onto surfaces/cavities (e.g., sweat, salivary glands).

Connective Tissue Elements

• Ground Substance: Fluid/gel matrix; supports/lubricates.

• Fibers: Collagen (strength), elastic (stretch), reticular (support).

• Cells: Fibroblasts (matrix), chondrocytes (cartilage), osteocytes (bone).

Types of Cartilage

Type	Characteristics	Location
Hyaline	Smooth, glassy, most abundant	Articular surfaces, nose, trachea, fetal skeleton
Fibrocartilage	Tough, abundant collagen	Intervertebral discs, knee meniscus
Elastic	Flexible, elastic fibers	Ear, epiglottis

Chapter 5 – The Integumentary System

Layers of the Epidermis (Deep to Superficial)

1. Stratum basale: Deepest; actively dividing stem cells.

2. Stratum spinosum: Spiny appearance; keratin production begins.

3. Stratum granulosum: Keratin production increases; cells begin to die.

4. Stratum lucidum: Clear layer; only in thick skin (palms, soles).

5. Stratum corneum: Outermost; dead, flat, keratinized cells.

Pigments Contributing to Skin Color

• Melanin: Brown/black pigment from melanocytes.

• Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment from diet.

• Hemoglobin: Red color from blood.

Apocrine vs. Eccrine Glands

• Apocrine: Armpits, groin, nipples; thick, milky sweat; odor-producing; active at puberty.

• Eccrine: All over body; watery sweat; cooling; active from birth.

• Modified Apocrine: Ceruminous (ear wax), mammary, ciliary (eyelids).

Functions of the Integumentary System

• Protection: Barrier against pathogens, UV, chemicals.

• Temperature Regulation: Sweating, blood vessel dilation/constriction.

• Sensation: Touch, pain, pressure, temperature receptors.

• Vitamin D Synthesis: UV triggers production.

• Excretion: Waste (urea, salts) lost through sweat.

• Blood Reservoir: Dermis holds ~5% of blood supply.

Chapter 6 – Bones and Skeletal Tissues

Bone Cells

• Osteogenic cells: Stem cells; differentiate into osteoblasts.

• Osteoblasts: Build new bone matrix.

• Osteocytes: Mature bone cells; maintain bone tissue; most numerous.

• Osteoclasts: Break down bone (resorption).

• Bone lining cells: Cover bone surfaces; inactive osteoblasts.

• Chondrocytes: Cartilage cells in epiphyseal plate.

Compact vs. Spongy Bone

• Compact Bone: Dense, solid; organized into osteons; outer layer; strength/protection.

• Spongy Bone: Lattice of trabeculae; spaces; ends of long bones/inside flat bones; lightweight; houses red marrow.

Osteon Structure

• Central (Haversian) canal surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae).

• Osteocytes in lacunae (small pockets between lamellae).

Endochondral Ossification

1. Hyaline cartilage model forms.

2. Bone collar forms around shaft.

3. Cartilage in center calcifies and breaks down.

4. Primary ossification center forms in diaphysis (shaft); bone replaces cartilage.

5. Secondary ossification centers form in epiphyses (ends) after birth.

Long Bone Growth

• Occurs at epiphyseal plate (growth plate) between diaphysis and epiphysis.

• Hormones: Growth hormone (GH), thyroid hormone, sex hormones (estrogen/testosterone).

• Key nutrients: Vitamin D (calcium absorption), calcium, phosphorus.

Chapter 8 – Joints and Articulations

Structural Classifications of Joints

• Fibrous: Bones joined by fibrous tissue; little/no movement (e.g., skull sutures).

• Cartilaginous: Bones joined by cartilage; slight movement (e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis).

• Synovial: Bones separated by fluid-filled cavity; most movable (e.g., knee, shoulder).

Functional Classifications of Joints

• Synarthrosis: Immovable (e.g., skull sutures).

• Amphiarthrosis: Slightly movable (e.g., pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs).

• Diarthrosis: Freely movable (e.g., shoulder, knee, hip).

Chapter 9 – Muscles and Muscle Tissue

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones; movement.

• Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, heart only; pumps blood.

• Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated, hollow organs; moves substances.

Sarcomere and Filaments

• Sarcomere: Contractile unit; region from one Z-disc to the next.

• Thick Filament: Myosin protein.

• Thin Filament: Actin (main), tropomyosin (blocks myosin binding sites), troponin (binds calcium).

Sliding Filament Model

Myosin heads bind to actin and pull thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. Sarcomere shortens; muscle contracts. Filaments slide past each other, do not shorten.

Action Potential Generation

1. Depolarization: Na+ rushes in; inside becomes positive.

2. Repolarization: K+ rushes out; inside returns to negative.

3. Hyperpolarization: Briefly more negative; Na+/K+ pump restores resting potential.

Cross-Bridge Cycle

1. Calcium binds troponin → tropomyosin moves → actin sites exposed.

2. Myosin head (ATP-energized) binds actin (cross-bridge).

3. Power stroke: myosin pulls actin; ADP + Pi released.

4. New ATP binds myosin → cross-bridge detaches → myosin re-cocks.

Calcium: Binds troponin to expose actin sites. ATP: Powers contraction and detachment.

ATP Regeneration Mechanisms

• Creatine Phosphate: Fastest; transfers phosphate to ADP; lasts ~10 seconds.

• Anaerobic Glycolysis: Glucose breakdown without oxygen; produces lactic acid; short bursts.

• Aerobic Respiration: Uses oxygen; most ATP; slowest but most efficient.

Chapter 11 – Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

Neuroglia Cells (CNS)

• Astrocytes: Support neurons; blood-brain barrier.

• Microglia: Immune cells; engulf debris/pathogens.

• Ependymal Cells: Line ventricles; produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

• Oligodendrocytes: Myelin sheath around CNS axons.

Neuroglia Cells (PNS)

• Schwann Cells: Myelin sheath around PNS axons.

• Satellite Cells: Support neuron cell bodies in ganglia.

Resting Membrane Potential

Inside of resting neuron is -70 mV relative to outside. Maintained by Na+/K+ pump and selective permeability. More K+ inside; more Na+ outside.

Synapse

Structure transferring information between neurons. Neurotransmitters released from presynaptic neuron cross synaptic cleft to bind postsynaptic receptors.

Chapter 12 – The Central Nervous System

Major Regions of the Brain

• Cerebrum: Thought, memory, sensation, voluntary movement.

• Diencephalon: Thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus.

• Brain Stem: Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata; vital reflexes.

• Cerebellum: Coordination, balance, fine motor control.

Corpus callosum: Connects cerebral hemispheres.

Ventricular System

• Four ventricles (2 lateral, 3rd, 4th) filled with CSF.

• CSF produced by choroid plexus; cushions/protects brain and spinal cord.

Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres

• Frontal: Motor, planning, personality.

• Parietal: Somatosensory.

• Temporal: Hearing, memory, language.

• Occipital: Vision.

• Insula: Taste, visceral sensation.

Functional Areas

• Prefrontal Cortex: Decision-making, planning, personality, impulse control.

• Motor Areas: Primary motor cortex (voluntary movement), premotor cortex (planning), Broca's area (speech production).

• Sensory Areas: Primary somatosensory cortex (touch, pain, temperature), primary visual cortex (vision), primary auditory cortex (hearing), Wernicke's area (language comprehension).

• Association Areas: Prefrontal (complex thinking), parieto-occipital-temporal (sensory integration/language), limbic (emotion, motivation, memory).

Diencephalon Structures

• Thalamus: Relay station for sensory information.

• Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis; controls pituitary gland.

• Epithalamus: Pineal gland; secretes melatonin, regulates sleep-wake cycles.

Brain Stem Regions

• Midbrain: Visual/auditory reflexes; dopamine production.

• Pons: Breathing rhythm; relay between cerebrum/cerebellum.

• Medulla oblongata: Vital reflexes: heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, vomiting.

Cerebellum Functions

• Coordinates smooth, precise movements.

• Maintains balance and posture.

• Regulates muscle tone.

• Processes sensory information for motor output.

Arbor vitae: Tree-like pattern of white matter inside cerebellum.

Chapter 13 – The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity

Cranial Nerves

Number	Name	Function	Type
I	Olfactory	Smell	Sensory
II	Optic	Vision	Sensory
III	Oculomotor	Eye movement, pupil constriction	Motor
IV	Trochlear	Downward/inward eye movement	Motor
V	Trigeminal	Face sensation, chewing	Both
VI	Abducens	Lateral eye movement	Motor
VII	Facial	Facial expressions, taste	Both
VIII	Vestibulocochlear	Hearing, balance	Sensory
IX	Glossopharyngeal	Taste, swallowing	Both
X	Vagus	Heart, lungs, digestion	Both
XI	Accessory	Head, shoulder movement	Motor
XII	Hypoglossal	Tongue movement	Motor

Spinal Nerve Roots

• Dorsal Root: Sensory (afferent) signals into spinal cord; dorsal root ganglion contains sensory neuron cell bodies.

• Ventral Root: Motor (efferent) signals out to muscles/glands.

Chapter 14 – The Autonomic Nervous System

Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

• Somatic: Voluntary; targets skeletal muscle; one motor neuron from CNS to effector.

• Autonomic: Involuntary; targets smooth/cardiac muscle, glands; two neurons (preganglionic + postganglionic).

ANS Neurotransmitters

• Acetylcholine (ACh): All preganglionic fibers; parasympathetic postganglionic fibers.

• Norepinephrine (NE): Sympathetic postganglionic fibers.

• Effect depends on receptor type, not just neurotransmitter.

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic

System	Origin	Fiber Length	Neurotransmitter	Effects
Sympathetic	Thoracolumbar (T1–L2)	Short preganglionic / long postganglionic	Norepinephrine	Increased heart rate, blood pressure, dilated pupils, inhibited digestion
Parasympathetic	Craniosacral (brain + S2–S4)	Long preganglionic / short postganglionic	Acetylcholine	Decreased heart rate, increased digestion, constricted pupils