BSC2085 Final Exam Study Guide: Anatomy and Physiology Essentials

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Definitions and Concepts

• Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology: The study of the function of the body and how its parts work together to carry out life-sustaining activities.

• Surface Anatomy: The study of external features and landmarks of the body that are visible or palpable.

Body Cavities and Regions

• Major Body Cavities:

  • Dorsal cavity: Includes the cranial and vertebral cavities.

  • Ventral cavity: Includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

• Body Regions: Divided into quadrants (RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ) and nine regions (e.g., epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric).

Levels of Structural Organization

• From simplest to most complex: Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

Homeostasis and Feedback Systems

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Negative Feedback: A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: A mechanism that amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

Anatomical Terms and Positions

• Standard anatomical position: body erect, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward.

• Directional terms: superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.

Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization

Chemical Reactions and Bonds

• Hydrolysis: Breaking down molecules by adding water.

• Dehydration Synthesis: Building molecules by removing water.

• Types of Bonds:

  • Ionic: Transfer of electrons.

  • Covalent: Sharing of electrons.

  • Hydrogen: Weak attraction between polar molecules.

• Polar vs. Non-polar Compounds: Polar compounds have unequal sharing of electrons; non-polar have equal sharing.

Basic Chemistry Terms

• Atom: Smallest unit of matter.

• Element: Substance made of one type of atom.

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom.

Acids, Bases, and Buffers

• Acids: Release H+ ions in solution.

• Bases: Accept H+ ions or release OH-.

• Buffers: Resist changes in pH.

Biomolecules

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; main energy source.

• Lipids: Fats, oils, and steroids; energy storage and membrane structure.

• Proteins: Chains of amino acids; structural and functional roles.

Nucleic Acids

• DNA: Double-stranded, stores genetic information.

• RNA: Single-stranded, involved in protein synthesis.

• Comparison: DNA has deoxyribose, thymine; RNA has ribose, uracil.

Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds

• Organic: Contain carbon and hydrogen (e.g., glucose).

• Inorganic: Usually lack carbon (e.g., water, salts).

Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization

Cell Structure

• Cell Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer; controls entry/exit.

• Cytoplasm: Fluid and organelles inside the cell.

• Nucleus: Contains DNA; control center.

Organelle Functions

• Mitochondria: ATP production.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein and lipid synthesis.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

Transport Mechanisms

• Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against gradient.

• Passive Transport: No energy required.

• Hypotonic/Isotonic/Hypertonic: Solutions with lower, equal, or higher solute concentration compared to the cell.

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA → mRNA in nucleus.

• Translation: mRNA → protein at ribosome.

• Triplets: Three-base sequences coding for amino acids.

Vesicular Transport

• Endocytosis: Bringing substances into the cell.

• Exocytosis: Expelling substances from the cell.

Principal Cations in Body Fluids

• Sodium (Na+): Major extracellular cation.

• Potassium (K+): Major intracellular cation.

Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization

Types of Tissue

• Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands.

• Connective: Supports, protects, binds other tissues.

• Muscle: Movement and force generation.

• Nervous: Transmits electrical impulses.

Tissue Structure and Adhesion

• Apical to Basal: Epithelial cells have an apical (top) and basal (bottom) surface.

• Connexons: Protein channels in gap junctions.

• CAMs (Cell Adhesion Molecules): Proteins that help cells stick together.

Tissue Healing

• Involves inflammation, regeneration, and sometimes fibrosis (scar formation).

Glands, Membranes, and Secretions

• Glands: Exocrine (secrete onto surfaces) and endocrine (secrete into blood).

• Membranes: Mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial.

Types of Cartilage

• Hyaline: Most common, flexible support.

• Elastic: Flexible, found in ear.

• Fibrocartilage: Strong, resists compression (e.g., intervertebral discs).

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Functions

• Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis, excretion.

Chapter 6: Bones and Bone Structure

Bone Function and Classification

• Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation.

• Classified as long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid bones.

Skeletal System Components

• Bones, cartilage, ligaments, joints.

Bone Organization

• Compact Bone: Dense, outer layer.

• Spongy Bone (Trabeculae): Porous, inner layer.

Bone Cells

• Osteoblasts: Build bone.

• Osteoclasts: Break down bone.

• Osteocytes: Mature bone cells, maintain bone.

Bone Marrow

• Red Marrow: Hematopoiesis (blood cell formation).

• Yellow Marrow: Fat storage.

Ossification

• Endochondral: Bone replaces cartilage (most bones).

• Membrane (Intramembranous): Bone develops from fibrous membrane (e.g., skull).

• Ossification vs. Calcification: Ossification is bone formation; calcification is deposition of calcium salts.

Bone Disorders

• Osteoporosis: Decreased bone mass, increased fracture risk.

• Dwarfism: Short stature due to growth hormone deficiency.

• Gigantism: Excessive growth due to excess growth hormone.

Exercise Effects

• Weight-bearing exercise increases bone density.

Chapter 9: Joints

Joint Classification

• Structural: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.

• Functional: Synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), diarthrosis (freely movable).

Synovial Joints

• Types: plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball-and-socket.

Joint Components

• Articulations: Where two bones meet.

• Attachments: Ligaments and tendons.

• Fat Pads: Cushion joints.

• Bursae: Fluid-filled sacs reducing friction.

• Fascia: Connective tissue surrounding muscles and other structures.

Chapters 10 & 11: Muscle Tissue and the Muscular System

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones.

• Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, heart only.

• Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated, walls of organs.

Muscle Structure

• Fascicles: Bundles of muscle fibers.

• Fibers: Individual muscle cells.

• Sarcolemma: Muscle cell membrane.

• Epimysium, Perimysium, Endomysium: Connective tissue layers around muscle, fascicles, and fibers, respectively.

Neuromuscular Junction

• Site where motor neuron stimulates muscle fiber.

Microscopic Anatomy

• Sarcomere: Contractile unit of muscle.

• Myosin: Thick filament.

• Actin: Thin filament.

• Troponin, Tropomyosin: Regulatory proteins on actin.

Muscle Contraction

• Sliding Filament Theory: Myosin heads bind to actin, pulling filaments past each other.

• Tension: Force generated during contraction.

Muscle Fiber Types

• Fast Fibers: Quick, powerful, fatigue rapidly.

• Slow Fibers: Endurance, resist fatigue.

Energy and Exercise

• Aerobic: Requires oxygen, produces more ATP.

• Anaerobic: No oxygen, less ATP, lactic acid produced.

Chapters 12, 13, 14: Nervous Tissue, Spinal Cord, Brain

Nervous System Divisions

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside CNS.

• Functions: Sensory input, integration, motor output.

Neuron Anatomy and Types

• Neuron: Nerve cell; transmits impulses.

• Dendrite: Receives signals.

• Axon: Sends signals.

• Neuroglia (Glial Cells): Support and protect neurons.

• Structural Classes: Multipolar, bipolar, unipolar.

Key Terms

• Membrane Potential: Voltage difference across membrane.

• Action Potential: Rapid change in membrane potential; nerve impulse.

• Synapse: Junction between neurons; can be chemical (neurotransmitter) or electrical (gap junction).

• Afferent: Sensory, toward CNS.

• Efferent: Motor, away from CNS.

• Sensory Neuron: Detects stimuli.

• Motor Neuron: Controls effectors (muscles/glands).

• Reflex Arc: Pathway for reflexes; includes receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector.

Brain Anatomy and Functions

• Cerebrum: Higher functions (thought, memory).

• Cerebellum: Coordination, balance.

• Brainstem: Basic life functions (breathing, heart rate).

Spinal Reflexes

• Automatic responses to stimuli, processed in spinal cord.

Cranial Nerves

• 12 pairs, each with specific sensory/motor functions (e.g., olfactory, optic, facial).