BSC2085 Final Exam Study Guide: Anatomy and Physiology Essentials

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Definitions and Concepts

• Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology: The study of the function of the body and how its parts work together to carry out life-sustaining activities.

• Surface Anatomy: The study of external features and landmarks of the body that are visible or palpable.

Body Cavities and Regions

• Major Body Cavities: Dorsal (cranial and vertebral) and ventral (thoracic and abdominopelvic).

• Body Regions: Divided into quadrants (RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ) and nine regions (e.g., epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric).

Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

Homeostasis and Feedback Systems

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Negative Feedback: A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: A mechanism that amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

Anatomical Terms and Positions

• Standard anatomical position: body erect, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward.

• Directional terms: superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.

Chapter 2: The Chemical Level of Organization

Chemical Reactions and Bonds

• Hydrolysis: Breaking down molecules by adding water.

• Dehydration Synthesis: Building molecules by removing water.

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons between atoms.

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons between atoms.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.

• Polar vs. Non-polar Compounds: Polar compounds have unequal sharing of electrons; non-polar have equal sharing.

Basic Chemistry Terms

• Atom: Smallest unit of matter.

• Element: Substance made of one type of atom.

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom.

Acids, Bases, and Buffers

• Acids: Release H+ ions in solution.

• Bases: Accept H+ ions or release OH-.

• Buffers: Resist changes in pH.

Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; main energy source.

• Lipids: Fats, oils, and steroids; energy storage and membrane structure.

• Proteins: Chains of amino acids; structural and functional roles.

Nucleic Acids

• DNA: Double-stranded, stores genetic information.

• RNA: Single-stranded, involved in protein synthesis.

• Comparison: DNA contains deoxyribose, thymine; RNA contains ribose, uracil.

Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds

• Organic: Contain carbon and hydrogen (e.g., glucose).

• Inorganic: Do not contain both carbon and hydrogen (e.g., water, salts).

Chapter 3: The Cellular Level of Organization

Cell Structure

• Cell Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer; controls entry/exit of substances.

• Cytoplasm: Fluid and organelles inside the cell.

• Nucleus: Contains DNA; control center.

Organelles and Functions

• Mitochondria: ATP production.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein and lipid synthesis.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

Transport Mechanisms

• Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against gradient.

• Passive Transport: No energy required.

• Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside; cell swells.

• Isotonic: Equal solute concentration; no net movement.

• Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside; cell shrinks.

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA → mRNA in nucleus.

• Translation: mRNA → protein at ribosome.

• Triplets: Three-base sequences on DNA/mRNA coding for amino acids.

Vesicular Transport

• Endocytosis: Bringing substances into the cell.

• Exocytosis: Expelling substances from the cell.

Principal Cations in Body Fluids

• Sodium (Na+): Major extracellular cation.

• Potassium (K+): Major intracellular cation.

Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization

Types of Tissue

• Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands.

• Connective: Supports, protects, binds other tissues.

• Muscle: Movement and force generation.

• Nervous: Transmits electrical impulses.

Tissue Structure and Adhesion

• From apical (top) to basal (bottom) surfaces.

• Connexons: Protein channels in gap junctions.

• CAMs (Cell Adhesion Molecules): Proteins that help cells stick together.

Tissue Healing

• Involves inflammation, regeneration, and sometimes fibrosis (scar formation).

Glands, Membranes, and Secretions

• Exocrine Glands: Secrete onto surfaces (e.g., sweat glands).

• Endocrine Glands: Secrete hormones into blood.

• Membranes: Mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial.

Types of Cartilage

• Hyaline: Most common; found in joints, nose.

• Elastic: Flexible; ear, epiglottis.

• Fibrocartilage: Strong; intervertebral discs.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Functions

• Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis, excretion.

Chapter 6: Bones and Bone Structure

Bone Function and Classification

• Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation.

• Classified as long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid bones.

Skeletal System Components

• Bones, cartilage, ligaments, joints.

Bone Organization

• Compact Bone: Dense, outer layer.

• Spongy Bone (Trabeculae): Porous, inner layer.

Bone Cells

• Osteoblasts: Build bone.

• Osteoclasts: Break down bone.

• Osteocytes: Mature bone cells, maintain bone.

Bone Marrow

• Red Marrow: Hematopoiesis (blood cell formation).

• Yellow Marrow: Fat storage.

Ossification

• Endochondral: Bone replaces cartilage (most bones).

• Intramembranous: Bone develops from fibrous membrane (flat bones).

Bone Disorders

• Osteoporosis: Decreased bone density.

• Dwarfism: Short stature due to growth issues.

• Gigantism: Excessive growth due to hormone imbalance.

Exercise and Bone

• Exercise increases bone density and strength.

Ossification vs. Calcification

• Ossification: Formation of bone tissue.

• Calcification: Deposition of calcium salts.

Chapter 9: Joints

Joint Classification

• Structural: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.

• Functional: Synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), diarthrosis (freely movable).

Synovial Joints

• Types: plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, ball-and-socket.

Articulations and Joint Structures

• Articulation: Where two bones meet.

• Attachments: ligaments, tendons.

• Other structures: fat pads, bursae (fluid-filled sacs), fascia (connective tissue layers).

Chapters 10 & 11: Muscle Tissue and the Muscular System

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones.

• Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, heart only.

• Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated, walls of organs.

Muscle Structure

• Fascicles: Bundles of muscle fibers.

• Fibers: Muscle cells.

• Sarcolemma: Muscle cell membrane.

• Layers: epimysium (outer), perimysium (middle), endomysium (inner).

Neuromuscular Junction

• Site where motor neuron stimulates muscle fiber.

• Neurotransmitter: acetylcholine (ACh).

Microscopic Anatomy

• Sarcomere: Contractile unit.

• Myosin: Thick filament.

• Actin: Thin filament.

• Troponin & Tropomyosin: Regulatory proteins.

Muscle Contraction

• Sliding filament theory: myosin heads bind to actin, pulling filaments past each other.

• Tension: force produced during contraction.

Muscle Fiber Types

• Fast Fibers: Quick, powerful, fatigue rapidly.

• Slow Fibers: Endurance, fatigue-resistant.

Energy and Exercise

• Aerobic: Requires oxygen, sustained activity.

• Anaerobic: No oxygen, short bursts.

Chapters 12, 13, 14: Nervous Tissue, Spinal Cord, Brain

Nervous System Divisions

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside CNS.

• Somatic: Voluntary control.

• Autonomic: Involuntary control.

Neuron Anatomy and Types

• Neuron: Nerve cell; transmits impulses.

• Dendrite: Receives signals.

• Axon: Sends signals.

• Neuroglia (Glial Cells): Support and protect neurons.

• Structural Classes: Multipolar, bipolar, unipolar.

Key Terms

• Membrane Potential: Voltage difference across membrane.

• Action Potential: Rapid change in membrane potential; nerve impulse.

• Synapse: Junction between neurons (chemical or electrical).

• Afferent: Sensory input to CNS.

• Efferent: Motor output from CNS.

• Sensory Neuron: Transmits sensory info.

• Motor Neuron: Transmits commands to muscles/glands.

• Reflex Arc: Pathway for reflexes.

Brain Anatomy and Functions

• Cerebrum: Higher functions (thought, memory).

• Cerebellum: Coordination, balance.

• Brainstem: Basic life functions.

Spinal Reflexes

• Automatic responses to stimuli via spinal cord.

Cranial Nerves

• 12 pairs; control senses and muscles of head/neck.