Comprehensive Study Guide for Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Structural Hierarchy in the Body

The human body is organized into a hierarchy of structural levels, each building upon the previous.

• Highest Level: Organism

• Lowest Level: Atom

• Order: Atom → Molecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

Definition of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy: Study of structure

• Physiology: Study of function

• Example: Studying the structure of the heart (anatomy) and how it pumps blood (physiology)

Cell Chemistry & Cell Components

Calculating Neutrons

To determine the number of neutrons in an atom:

• Subtract the atomic number from the atomic mass.

• Example: Aluminum: 27 (atomic mass) - 13 (atomic number) = 14 neutrons

Purpose of the Cell Membrane

• Acts as a selective barrier

• Regulates what enters and exits the cell

• Maintains homeostasis

Energy & Cell Processes

Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and ETC/ATP Yield

• Glycolysis: Occurs in cytoplasm, produces 2 ATP

• Krebs Cycle: Occurs in mitochondria, produces 2 ATP

• ETC (Electron Transport Chain): Occurs in mitochondria, produces 32-34 ATP

• Anaerobic Respiration: Less ATP produced, only 2 ATP

Metabolic Terms

• Gluconeogenesis: Making glucose from non-carbohydrates

• Glycogenolysis: Breaking glycogen into glucose

• Glycolysis: Breaking glucose to make ATP

• Glycogen: Storage of glucose

Two Fates of Glycolysis

• With oxygen: Krebs cycle + ETC

• Without oxygen: Lactic acid fermentation

Cell Processes: Transcription & Translation

Transcription and Translation

• Transcription: DNA → mRNA (nucleus)

• Translation: mRNA → protein (ribosome)

• Order: Transcription occurs first

• Product: Protein

Tissues & Histology

Types of Membranes

• Serous Membranes:

  • Visceral layer: Covers organs

  • Parietal layer: Lines body cavity

• Mucous Membranes: Open to external environment (digestive, respiratory, urinary tracts)

Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

• Cell-dense, avascular, fast regeneration

• Lines and covers surfaces, forms glands

Connective Tissue Examples

• Bone

• Blood

• Areolar

• Adipose

Differences Between Epithelial and Connective Tissue

Feature	Epithelial Tissue	Connective Tissue
Cellularity	Cell-rich, avascular	Matrix-rich, cell-poor
Function	Lines, covers, forms glands	Supports, connects, stores energy

Types of Epithelium

• Stratified vs. Squamous:

  • Stratified: Multiple layers

  • Squamous: Flat cells

• Cuboidal, Columnar, Pseudostratified Ciliated:

  • Cuboidal: Cube-shaped (glands, kidney)

  • Columnar: Tall, column-shaped (digestive tract)

  • Pseudostratified Ciliated: Respiratory tract, mucus movement

Apical Side of Tissue

• Free surface that faces the lumen or outside environment

Vascularity of Tissues

• Extremely Vascular Tissues: Muscle and bone

• Avascular Tissues: Epithelium, cartilage, cornea

ECM Components

• Proteoglycans and GAGs: Negative charge allows absorption of large amounts of water

Transport Across Membranes

Active Transport

• Requires energy (ATP)

• Moves substances against their concentration gradient

Passive Transport

• Does not require energy

• Examples: Diffusion, osmosis

Facilitated Passive Transport

• Uses carrier or channel proteins (e.g., glucose transport)

Solutions and Osmosis

Hypertonic Solution

• Higher solute outside the cell; water leaves the cell, causing it to shrink

Hypotonic Solution

• Lower solute outside the cell; water enters the cell, causing it to swell or burst

Isotonic Solution

• Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell; no net water movement

Cellular Ions and pH

Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+) Concentrations

• Sodium: Higher outside the cell

• Potassium: Higher inside the cell

Na+/K+ Pump

• Moves 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in using ATP

• Creates the resting membrane potential

• Type of transport: Active transport

Normal Blood pH

• Range: 7.35–7.45

Biomolecules

Oligopeptide vs. Polypeptide vs. Protein

Type	Number of Amino Acids	Function
Oligopeptide	2–10	Short chains
Polypeptide	10–50	Longer chains
Protein	50+	Functional

What Makes Something Organic

• Contains carbon and hydrogen

Types of Lipids

• Fatty acids

• Triglycerides

• Phospholipids

• Sterols

• Eicosanoids

Enzymes

• Biological catalysts that lower activation energy and speed up chemical reactions

Nucleotides

• Building blocks of DNA and RNA

• Consist of sugar, phosphate, and nitrogen base

• Examples: ATP, DNA nucleotides, RNA nucleotides

Histology

Histology Examples to Know

• Simple squamous

• Stratified squamous

• Cuboidal

• Columnar

• Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

• Hyaline cartilage

• Bone

• Blood

• Adipose

Homeostasis & Feedback

Definition of Homeostasis

• Maintenance of a stable internal environment

Feedback Systems

Type	Function	Example
Negative Feedback	Minimizes stability	Body temperature, blood sugar
Positive Feedback	Amplifies response	Childbirth, blood clotting

Other Key Concepts

Vasodilation and Vasoconstriction

• Vasodilation: Blood vessels widen to increase blood flow and release heat

• Vasoconstriction: Blood vessels narrow to conserve heat and increase blood pressure

Percent of Water in the Body

• Approximately 60–70%

Protein Denaturation

• Proteins are denatured by heat and pH changes

Dehydration Synthesis vs. Hydrolysis

Process	Description
Dehydration Synthesis	Builds molecules by removing water
Hydrolysis	Breaks molecules by adding water

Disaccharide Formation

• Glucose + glucose = maltose

• Glucose + fructose = sucrose

• Glucose + galactose = lactose

Endocrine vs. Exocrine

Type	Secretion Method
Endocrine	Hormones released into bloodstream
Exocrine	Secretions released through ducts

Proteoglycans and Water in Joints

• Proteoglycans attract and hold water, providing shock absorption and lubrication

Practice Slide: Hyaline Cartilage

• Smooth matrix with chondrocytes in lacunae

Organelles in Order of Protein Synthesis

• Nucleus → Ribosomes → Rough ER → Golgi apparatus → Cell membrane

• Function: Involves transcription, assembly, modification, packaging, secretion

Additional info:

• Some content inferred and expanded for completeness and clarity.