Comprehensive Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

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Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms, including their systems, organs, tissues, and cells. It can be subdivided into cytology (study of cells), histology (study of tissues), regional, systemic, and surface anatomy.
Physiology is the study of the function of living organisms and their parts, focusing on how structures work together to sustain life.
Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a stable internal environment. It is crucial for survival, as parameters (e.g., temperature, pH) must remain within certain limits. Feedback loops (biological and non-biological) help regulate homeostasis. Negative feedback reduces deviations from a set point, while positive feedback amplifies changes.
Major themes in anatomy and physiology include structure-function relationships, gradients, cell-to-cell communication, and homeostatic regulation.

Living organisms share seven characteristics: organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, reproduction, and adaptation.
Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body, often represented by the equation:
Adaptation, natural selection, and evolution explain how organisms change over time to better survive in their environments.
Stimulus: Any change in the environment that elicits a response from an organism.

Hierarchy: chemical → cellular → tissue → organ → organ system → organism.
Tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
Organ: a structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function.
Cytology vs. Histology: Cytology is the study of cells; histology is the study of tissues.

There are 11 major organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.
Each system has specific functions vital to homeostasis and survival.

Positive feedback amplifies a response (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth).
Negative feedback counteracts changes (e.g., temperature regulation, blood glucose control).

Ionic bonds: formed by transfer of electrons.
Covalent bonds: formed by sharing electrons.
Hydrogen bonds: weak attractions between polar molecules.
Electrolytes: substances that dissociate into ions in water and conduct electricity.
Octet and duet rules: atoms tend to fill their outermost shell with 8 (or 2) electrons for stability.

Types of energy: kinetic, potential, chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant.
Endergonic reactions absorb energy; exergonic reactions release energy.
Anabolism: building up molecules; catabolism: breaking down molecules.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.
Hydrolysis vs. dehydration synthesis: hydrolysis breaks bonds using water; dehydration synthesis forms bonds by removing water.

Four major types: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
Monomers are building blocks; polymers are chains of monomers.
Carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.
Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.
Proteins: composed of amino acids; structure includes primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels.
Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA, composed of nucleotides.

All living things are composed of cells; cells are the basic unit of life.
Major components: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, organelles.
Fluid mosaic model: describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of proteins floating in a sea of lipids.
Glycocalyx: carbohydrate-rich area on the cell surface important for cell recognition.

Passive transport: does not require energy (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).
Active transport: requires energy (pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis).
Tonicity: describes the effect of a solution on cell volume (hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic).
Sodium-potassium pump: maintains electrochemical gradients across the membrane.

Cell cycle: series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide (interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis).
Mitosis: division of the nucleus; phases include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.
Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm.
Checkpoints: control points where stop and go-ahead signals regulate the cycle.
Programmed cell death (apoptosis): controlled process to eliminate damaged or unnecessary cells.
Benign vs. malignant tumors: benign tumors do not invade other tissues; malignant tumors (cancers) can spread (metastasize).

Macromolecule	Monomer	Main Function	Examples
Carbohydrates	Monosaccharides	Energy source, structure	Glucose, starch, glycogen
Lipids	Fatty acids, glycerol	Energy storage, membranes	Triglycerides, phospholipids
Proteins	Amino acids	Enzymes, structure, transport	Hemoglobin, enzymes
Nucleic acids	Nucleotides	Genetic information	DNA, RNA

This guide is based on a syllabus or learning outcomes document, summarizing key topics for an introductory Anatomy & Physiology course.
Students should refer to their textbook and class notes for detailed explanations and diagrams.