Comprehensive Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

Subatomic Particles

Introduction to Atomic Structure

Atoms are the fundamental units of matter, composed of subatomic particles that determine their chemical properties and behavior.

• Electron: Negatively charged, negligible mass, found in shells orbiting the nucleus.

• Proton: Positively charged, 1 atomic mass unit, located in the nucleus.

• Neutron: Neutral charge, 1 atomic mass unit, located in the nucleus.

Acids and Bases

pH and Biological Importance

Acids and bases influence the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution, affecting cellular processes and enzyme activity.

• Acid: Increases the concentration of H+ in a solution and decreases pH (e.g., hydrochloric acid).

• Base: Decreases the concentration of H+ in a solution and increases pH (e.g., sodium hydroxide).

Types of Chemical Bonds

Forces Holding Atoms Together

• Covalent Bonds: Electrons are shared between atoms, forming strong and stable molecules (e.g., H2O).

• Ionic Bonds: Attraction between oppositely charged ions (e.g., NaCl).

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (e.g., between water molecules).

Chemical Reactions

How Substances Interact and Change

• Synthesis Reaction: (Reactants) A + B → (products) AB

• Decomposition Reaction: AB → A + B

• Exchange Reaction: AB + CD → AD + CB

Exergonic: Releases energy (catabolic, typically breakdown reactions). Endergonic: Requires energy input (anabolic, typically synthesis reactions).

Enzymes

Biological Catalysts

• Proteins that act as catalysts to lower activation energy and speed up reactions.

• Highly specific for their substrates.

• Not consumed in the reaction.

Biomolecules

Major Classes and Functions

• Proteins: Structure, function, catalysis (enzymes).

• Lipids: Energy storage, membrane structure.

• Carbohydrates: Energy source, cell recognition.

• Nucleic Acids: Genetic information storage and transfer.

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Flow of Genetic Information

• Transcription: DNA → RNA

• Translation: RNA → Protein

Membrane Transport

Movement of Molecules Across Cell Membranes

• Diffusion: Movement of small molecules through a semipermeable membrane from high to low concentration (no energy required).

• Osmosis: Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.

• Active Transport: Movement against the concentration gradient using energy (ATP).

Cellular Respiration

Energy Production in Cells

• Glycolysis produces 2 ATP and pyruvate.

• Most ATP (32) is produced in the electron transport chain.

• Electron carriers (NADH, FADH2) donate electrons for ATP production in the mitochondria.

Energy and Reactions

Energy Changes in Biochemical Reactions

• Endergonic: Energy-requiring reactions.

• Exergonic: Energy-releasing reactions.

• Activation Energy: Energy required to initiate a reaction.

• Catalyst: Lowers activation energy.

Cell Structure and Function

Major Components and Their Roles

• Cytoskeleton: Supports cell shape, organization, transport, and movement.

• Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP synthesis.

Membrane Structure

Phospholipid Bilayer and Selective Permeability

• Fluid Mosaic Model: Dynamic phospholipid bilayer with proteins.

• Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail, enabling selective permeability.

Specialized Cellular Processes

ATP Production and Electron Transport

• Electron Carriers: Proteins in mitochondria, generate electron carriers.

• ATP synthase uses proton gradient to generate ATP.

• NADH and FADH2 are formed and donate electrons to the ETC.

Thousand and One Functions of the Cell

Cellular Diversity

• Differentiation: Leads to a wide range of mechanical, structural, and functional specializations.

Water Movement

Osmosis and Cellular Homeostasis

• Hypertonic Solution: Higher solute concentration outside the cell, causing the cell to lose water and shrink.

• Hypotonic Solution: Lower solute concentration outside the cell, causing the cell to gain water and swell.

Energy and Molecule Movement

Types of Energy in Biological Systems

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of movement (e.g., ATP hydrolysis driving muscle contraction).

• Potential Energy: Stored energy (e.g., chemical bonds).

Key Elements in the Body

Major Elements Essential for Life

• Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H): Make up over 96% of body mass.

DNA and RNA

Genetic Information and Protein Synthesis

• DNA: Stores genetic information for protein production.

• RNA: Single-stranded and involved in protein synthesis.

Practice Questions

1. Differentiate between endergonic and exergonic reactions.

2. Describe the role of NADH in cellular respiration.

3. Explain the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.

4. What is the function of enzymes in biochemical reactions?