Comprehensive Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

Macromolecules

Monomers and Polymers

Macromolecules are large, complex molecules essential for life, composed of smaller units called monomers. When monomers join together, they form polymers.

• Monomers: Simple molecules that can join to form polymers (e.g., amino acids, nucleotides, monosaccharides).

• Polymers: Chains of monomers (e.g., proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides).

Elements in Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates: Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) (CHO).

• Lipids: Composed of C, H, and O (CHO).

• Proteins: Composed of C, H, O, nitrogen (N), and sometimes sulfur (S) (CHONS).

• Nucleic Acids: Composed of C, H, O, N, and phosphorus (P) (CHONP).

Carbohydrates

• Function: Provide energy and structural support.

• Monomer: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose).

• Polymer: Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

• Glycogen vs. Starch: Glycogen is stored in animal cells; starch is stored in plant cells.

Lipids

• Function: Energy storage, insulation, and cell membrane structure.

• Monomer: Fatty acids and glycerol.

• Polymer: Triglycerides, phospholipids.

Proteins

• Function: Enzymes, structural support, transport, signaling.

• Monomer: Amino acids.

• Polymer: Polypeptides.

• Protein Structure:

  1. Primary: Sequence of amino acids.

  2. Secondary: Alpha-helices and beta-sheets.

  3. Tertiary: 3D folding due to side chain interactions.

  4. Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains.

Nucleic Acids

• Function: Store and transmit genetic information.

• Monomer: Nucleotides.

• Polymer: DNA and RNA.

Enzymes

Function and Mechanism

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

• Macromolecule Type: Proteins.

• Binding Site: The active site is where substrates bind.

DNA/RNA

Structure and Function

• Monomer: Nucleotide.

• Nucleotide Components: Phosphate group, sugar (deoxyribose or ribose), nitrogenous base.

• Location: DNA is found in the nucleus; RNA is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm.

• Base Pairs: DNA: A-T, C-G; RNA: A-U, C-G.

• Chromosomes: Structures containing DNA and proteins.

• Transcription: DNA is converted to RNA.

• Translation: RNA is used to synthesize proteins.

States of Matter

Classification and Properties

• Solids: Definite shape and volume.

• Liquids: Definite volume, indefinite shape.

• Gases: Indefinite shape and volume.

• Differences: Based on particle arrangement and energy.

Cell Membrane

Structure and Function

• Phospholipid Bilayer: Hydrophilic heads face outward; hydrophobic tails face inward.

• Proteins: Integral and peripheral proteins serve as channels, receptors, and enzymes.

• Cholesterol: Stabilizes membrane fluidity.

• Transport: Molecules cross via proteins or diffusion.

• Membrane Potential: Electrical potential across the membrane, measured in mV.

Cellular Structure

Organelles and Their Functions

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material.

• Mitochondria: ATP production.

• Golgi Apparatus: Protein modification and sorting.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Protein and lipid synthesis.

• Lysosomes: Digestion of cellular waste.

• Centrioles: Cell division.

• Microtubules/Microfilaments: Cell shape and movement.

• Flagella/Cilia: Cell movement.

Organ Systems

Major Systems and Functions

• Cardiovascular: Heart and blood vessels; transports nutrients and oxygen.

• Respiratory: Lungs; gas exchange.

• Digestive: Stomach, intestines; nutrient absorption.

• Endocrine: Glands; hormone regulation.

• Nervous: Brain, nerves; control and communication.

Transcription / Translation

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

• Process: DNA → mRNA (transcription) → Protein (translation).

• Transcription: Occurs in the nucleus; DNA is copied to mRNA.

• Translation: Occurs in the cytoplasm; mRNA is decoded to synthesize proteins.

• Differences: mRNA carries genetic code; tRNA brings amino acids; rRNA forms ribosomes.

Organism Composition

Levels of Organization

• Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organisms

• Each level increases in complexity and specialization.

Chemical Reactions

Types and Mechanisms

• Dehydration Synthesis: Builds molecules by removing water (anabolic).

• Hydrolysis: Breaks molecules by adding water (catabolic).

• Oxidation-Reduction: Transfer of electrons; oxidation loses electrons, reduction gains electrons.

Equation:

$\text{LEO says GER} \rightarrow \text{Lose Electrons = Oxidation, Gain Electrons = Reduction}$

Bonds & Atoms

Atomic Structure

• Protons: Positive charge.

• Neutrons: No charge.

• Electrons: Negative charge; important for chemical reactions.

• Atomic Number: Number of protons.

• Atomic Mass: Protons + Neutrons.

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing electrons.

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons.

• Isotopes: Atoms with same number of protons, different neutrons.

Transport

Mechanisms Across Membranes

• Passive Transport: High to low concentration (diffusion, osmosis).

• Active Transport: Low to high concentration; requires energy (ATP).

• Endocytosis: Cell takes in material (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated).

• Exocytosis: Cell expels material.

• Sodium/Potassium Pump: Moves Na+ out, K+ in; maintains cell potential.

• Symport/Antiport: Types of co-transport mechanisms.

pH and Buffers

Acidity, Alkalinity, and Regulation

• pH Scale: 0-14; 7 is neutral, below 7 is acidic, above 7 is basic.

• Logarithmic Scale: Each unit is a 10-fold change.

• Buffers: Substances that stabilize pH.

• Alkaline: High pH, basic.

Solutions

Types and Effects on Cells

• Isotonic: No net movement of water.

• Hypertonic: Water moves out; cell shrinks (crenation).

• Hypotonic: Water moves in; cell swells and may burst (lysis).

Homeostasis

Regulation and Feedback

• Homeostasis: Maintenance of stable internal environment.

• Disruption: Can lead to disease.

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies changes (e.g., childbirth).

• Negative Feedback: Reduces changes (e.g., temperature regulation).

Cell Cycle

Stages and Importance

• Purpose: Growth, repair, replacement of cells.

• Interphase: Cell growth and DNA replication.

• Mitosis: Division of nucleus.

  1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense.

  2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at center.

  3. Anaphase: Chromatids separate.

  4. Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms.

  5. Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

• Apoptosis: Programmed cell death.

• Centrioles: Important for cell division.

Additional info: This guide expands on the syllabus outline, providing definitions, examples, and context for each topic to support exam preparation and foundational understanding in Anatomy & Physiology.