Comprehensive Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

1. Macromolecules

a. Monomers and Polymers

Macromolecules are large, complex molecules essential for life, composed of smaller subunits called monomers. When monomers join together, they form polymers.

• Carbohydrates: Monomer = monosaccharide (e.g., glucose); Polymer = polysaccharide (e.g., starch, glycogen)

• Proteins: Monomer = amino acid; Polymer = polypeptide/protein

• Nucleic Acids: Monomer = nucleotide; Polymer = DNA or RNA

• Lipids: Not true polymers, but composed of fatty acids and glycerol

Elements: Carbohydrates (CHO), Proteins (CHON), Nucleic Acids (CHONP), Lipids (CHO)

b. Carbohydrates

• Provide energy and structural support

• Stored as glycogen in animals and starch in plants

c. Proteins

• Made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

• Functions: enzymes, structural support, transport, signaling

• Protein Structure:

  1. Primary: Sequence of amino acids

  2. Secondary: Alpha-helices and beta-sheets

  3. Tertiary: 3D folding due to side chain interactions

  4. Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains

d. Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information

• Composed of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous base)

e. Lipids

• Hydrophobic molecules, including fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids

• Phospholipids form cell membranes

2. Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

• Most enzymes are proteins

• They bind substrates at the active site

• The binding site is called the active site

3. DNA/RNA

• Monomer: Nucleotide

• Three components: Sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous base

• DNA: Double helix, stores genetic info; RNA: Single-stranded, involved in protein synthesis

• Base pairs: DNA (A-T, C-G), RNA (A-U, C-G)

• DNA is located in the nucleus; RNA is found in the nucleus and cytoplasm

• Transcription: DNA → mRNA; Translation: mRNA → protein

4. States of Matter

• Solids: Definite shape and volume

• Liquids: Definite volume, no definite shape

• Gases: No definite shape or volume

• States differ in particle arrangement and energy

5. Water

• Dehydration synthesis: Joins molecules by removing water (anabolic)

• Hydrolysis: Breaks molecules by adding water (catabolic)

• Oxidation-reduction: Transfer of electrons; oxidation = loss, reduction = gain

6. Cellular Structure

• Organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria, ER, Golgi, lysosomes, peroxisomes, ribosomes, cytoskeleton, centrioles, microtubules, microvilli, cilia, flagella

• Plant vs. animal cells: Plant cells have chloroplasts, cell wall, large vacuole

7. Organ Systems

• Major systems: Cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, endocrine, nervous

• Each system has specific organs and functions

8. Transcription / Translation

• Transcription: DNA → mRNA in the nucleus

• Translation: mRNA → protein at the ribosome

• mRNA, tRNA, rRNA have distinct roles

9. Organism Composition

• Levels: Atoms → molecules → cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism

10. Bonds & Atoms

• Protons: Positive charge; Neutrons: Neutral; Electrons: Negative

• Atomic number = number of protons; Atomic mass = protons + neutrons

• Covalent bonds: Share electrons; Ionic bonds: Transfer electrons

• Isotopes: Atoms with same protons, different neutrons

11. Transport

• Active transport: Requires energy, moves substances against gradient

• Passive transport: No energy, moves with gradient (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion)

• Endocytosis: Cell engulfs material; Exocytosis: Releases material

• Sodium-potassium pump: Moves 3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in

• Symport: Moves substances in same direction; Antiport: Opposite directions

12. pH and Buffers

• pH scale: 0-14; 7 = neutral, 7 = basic

• Each pH unit = 10-fold change in H+ concentration

• Buffers: Resist changes in pH

• Alkaline: Basic solution

13. Solutions

• Isotonic: No net water movement

• Hypertonic: Water moves out, cell shrinks (crenation)

• Hypotonic: Water moves in, cell swells and may burst (lysis)

14. Homeostasis

• Maintaining stable internal environment

• Positive feedback: Amplifies change (e.g., blood clotting)

• Negative feedback: Reverses change (e.g., body temperature regulation)

15. Cell Cycle

• Purpose: Growth, repair, replacement

• Interphase: Cell growth and DNA replication

• Mitosis: Division of nucleus

  1. Prophase

  2. Metaphase

  3. Anaphase

  4. Telophase

  5. Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm

• Apoptosis: Programmed cell death

• Centrioles are important for spindle formation