Comprehensive Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

Lecture 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

What is Anatomy and Physiology?

Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms, including their systems, organs, and tissues. Physiology is the study of the functions and processes of these structures.

• Anatomy includes cytology (study of cells), histology (study of tissues), and various levels such as regional, systemic, and surface anatomy.

• Physiology focuses on how anatomical structures work together to sustain life.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a stable internal environment within an organism.

• Importance: Essential for survival; failure leads to disease or death.

• Feedback Loops: Biological (e.g., blood glucose regulation) and non-biological (e.g., thermostat in a house).

• Types: Positive feedback (amplifies change) and negative feedback (reduces change).

Major Themes in Anatomy & Physiology

• Adaptation, natural selection, and evolution shape physiological processes.

• Hierarchical organization: cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism.

Characteristics of Life

• Organization

• Metabolism

• Responsiveness

• Growth

• Development

• Reproduction

• Homeostasis

Metabolism Equation

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body.

• Equation: $\text{Metabolism} = \text{Catabolism} + \text{Anabolism}$

Stimulus and Response

• Stimulus: Any change in the environment that elicits a response from an organism.

Major Tissue Types

• Epithelial

• Connective

• Muscle

• Nervous

Cytology vs. Histology

• Cytology: Study of cells.

• Histology: Study of tissues.

Organs and Organ Systems

• Organ: Structure composed of two or more tissue types performing a specific function.

• Organ Systems: Groups of organs working together (e.g., digestive, respiratory).

Feedback Loops

• Positive Feedback: Childbirth, blood clotting.

• Negative Feedback: Temperature regulation, blood pressure.

Gradients in the Body

• Gradients (concentration, pressure, electrical) drive movement of substances.

Lecture 2: Chemistry Foundations for Anatomy & Physiology

Atoms and Atomic Structure

• Atom: Smallest unit of matter.

• Proton: Positive charge, in nucleus.

• Neutron: Neutral, in nucleus.

• Electron: Negative charge, orbits nucleus.

Atomic Number and Mass

• Atomic Number: Number of protons.

• Atomic Mass: Protons + Neutrons.

Subatomic Particles and Chemical Properties

• Electrons determine chemical reactivity.

Types of Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons.

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.

Periodic Table and Elements

• Elements are organized by atomic number and properties.

Octet and Duet Rules

• Atoms tend to fill their outer shell with 8 electrons (octet) or 2 (duet for small atoms).

Electrolytes

• Substances that dissociate in water to form ions, conducting electricity.

Lecture 3: Chemical Reactions and Energy

Types of Energy

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.

• Potential Energy: Stored energy.

Endergonic vs. Exergonic Reactions

• Endergonic: Absorb energy.

• Exergonic: Release energy.

Anabolism vs. Catabolism

• Anabolism: Building up molecules.

• Catabolism: Breaking down molecules.

Chemical Reaction Notation

• Reactants → Products

Organic vs. Inorganic Chemistry

• Organic: Contains carbon, usually large and complex.

• Inorganic: Usually does not contain carbon.

Enzymes and Reaction Rates

• Enzymes lower activation energy, increasing reaction rates.

Hydrophobic vs. Hydrophilic

• Hydrophobic: Repels water.

• Hydrophilic: Attracts water.

Acids, Bases, and pH

• pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration.

• Buffer: Substance that stabilizes pH.

Lecture 4: Macromolecules

Types of Macromolecules

Macromolecule	Monomer	Function
Carbohydrates	Monosaccharides	Energy, structure
Lipids	Fatty acids, glycerol	Energy storage, membranes
Proteins	Amino acids	Structure, enzymes
Nucleic acids	Nucleotides	Genetic information

Dehydration Synthesis vs. Hydrolysis

• Dehydration Synthesis: Forms bonds by removing water.

• Hydrolysis: Breaks bonds by adding water.

Carbohydrate Types

• Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

Lipids

• Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

Lecture 5: Cell Structure and Function

Cell Theory

• All living things are composed of cells.

• Cells are the basic unit of life.

• All cells come from pre-existing cells.

Cell Components

• Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, organelles

Fluid Mosaic Model

• Describes the structure of the cell membrane as a mosaic of proteins floating in or on the fluid lipid bilayer.

Membrane Proteins

• Transport, receptors, enzymes, cell recognition

Transport Mechanisms

• Passive (diffusion, osmosis)

• Active (requires energy, e.g., sodium-potassium pump)

Tonicity

• Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside cell.

• Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside cell.

• Isotonic: Equal solute concentration.

Lecture 6: Organelles and Cell Transport

Major Organelles

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material.

• Mitochondria: ATP production.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Protein and lipid synthesis.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

• Peroxisomes: Break down fatty acids.

• Lysosomes: Digest cellular waste.

Lecture 7: Cytoskeleton and Nucleus

Cytoskeleton

• Microfilaments: Actin, cell movement.

• Intermediate Filaments: Structural support.

• Microtubules: Cell division, transport.

Nucleus Structure

• Chromatin vs. Chromosomes

• Nuclear envelope, nucleolus

DNA Structure

• Double helix, base pairing (A-T, C-G)

• Phosphodiester linkages

Lecture 8: Protein Synthesis and Cell Cycle

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA → mRNA

• Translation: mRNA → Protein

• Codon: Three-base sequence on mRNA

• Anticodon: Complementary sequence on tRNA

Cell Cycle

• Interphase (G1, S, G2)

• Mitosis (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)

• Cytokinesis

Checkpoints and Cell Death

• Checkpoints ensure proper division.

• Programmed cell death (apoptosis) vs. cancer (uncontrolled growth).

Tumors and Metastasis

• Benign: Non-cancerous.

• Malignant: Cancerous, can metastasize (spread).

Additional info: Some details and definitions have been expanded for clarity and completeness.