Comprehensive Study Notes for Basic Anatomy & Physiology (Biology 112)

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Definitions and Scope

• Anatomy: The study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts, and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology: The study of how the body and its parts function.

• Relationship: Anatomy and physiology are closely related; structure determines function, and function influences structure.

• Levels of Organization (from simplest to most complex):

  • Atoms

  • Organelles

  • Cells

  • Tissues

  • Organs

  • Organ Systems

  • Organism

Organ Systems Overview

• There are 11 major organ systems in the human body, each with specific functions (e.g., integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive).

Homeostasis and Control Mechanisms

• Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment necessary for optimal functioning.

• Requirements: Nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, and appropriate atmospheric pressure.

• Negative Feedback Loop: The effector inhibits the original stimulus to restore homeostasis (e.g., body temperature regulation, blood glucose regulation).

• Positive Feedback Loop: The effector enhances the original stimulus, amplifying the response until a specific outcome is achieved (e.g., labor contractions, blood clotting).

Cell Chemistry & Cell Components

Elements and Atoms

• Elements: Pure substances composed of one type of atom; cannot be broken down further.

• Major elements in the human body: Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen.

• Atoms: The smallest units of matter, composed of protons (positive, nucleus), neutrons (neutral, nucleus), and electrons (negative, electron shells).

Chemical Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in charged ions (e.g., Na+ and Cl-).

• Covalent Bonds: Formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. Can be polar (unequal sharing) or nonpolar (equal sharing).

Metabolism and Chemical Reactions

• Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in the body.

• Synthesis (Anabolism): Building larger molecules from smaller ones (e.g., dehydration synthesis).

• Decomposition (Catabolism): Breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones (e.g., hydrolysis).

Inorganic and Organic Compounds

• Inorganic Compounds: Usually lack carbon; include water, salts, acids, and bases.

• Organic Compounds: Contain carbon and hydrogen; include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

pH Scale and Buffers

• pH: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; scale ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic), with 7 as neutral.

• Buffers help maintain stable pH in body fluids.

Organic Molecules

• Carbohydrates: Main energy source; monomers are monosaccharides (e.g., glucose).

• Lipids: Energy storage, insulation; monomers are fatty acids and glycerol.

• Proteins: Structural and functional roles; monomers are amino acids, joined by peptide bonds.

• Nucleic Acids: Store and transmit genetic information; monomers are nucleotides (DNA, RNA, ATP).

Cells and Tissues

Cell Structure

• All cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane.

• Plasma Membrane: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; selectively permeable.

Membrane Transport

• Passive Transport: Does not require energy (e.g., diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis).

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient.

Tissues and Histology

• Histology: The study of tissues.

• Four basic tissue types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous.

Integumentary System

Skin Structure and Function

• Composed of epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium) and dermis (connective tissue).

• Functions: Protection, vitamin D synthesis, sensory reception, temperature regulation.

Bones & Skeletal Tissue

Bone Structure and Function

• Functions: Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation (hematopoiesis).

• Types of bone tissue: Compact (dense) and spongy (cancellous).

• Bone cells: Osteocytes (mature), osteoblasts (form bone), osteoclasts (break down bone).

Muscle Tissue

Types and Functions

• Three types: Skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary, heart), smooth (involuntary, walls of organs).

• Functions: Movement, posture, joint stabilization, heat production.

Nervous Tissue and Nervous System

Organization and Function

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord; processes information and coordinates response.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cranial and spinal nerves; transmits sensory and motor signals.

• Neurons: Conduct nerve impulses; neuroglia support and protect neurons.

The Endocrine System

Hormonal Regulation

• Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.

• Examples: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas (insulin and glucagon for blood glucose regulation).

The Blood

Functions and Components

• Functions: Transport, protection, regulation.

• Components: Plasma (liquid), formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets).

The Cardiovascular System

Heart and Blood Vessels

• Heart: Pumps blood through pulmonary and systemic circuits.

• Blood vessels: Arteries (away from heart), veins (toward heart), capillaries (exchange).

The Respiratory System

Gas Exchange and Organs

• Major organs: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli.

• Functions: Gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out), regulation of blood pH, voice production.

The Digestive System

Functions and Major Organs

• Functions: Digestion, absorption, elimination.

• Major organs: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, accessory organs (liver, pancreas, gallbladder).

The Urinary System

Functions and Organs

• Functions: Removal of wastes, regulation of fluid/electrolyte and acid-base balance, blood pressure regulation.

• Organs: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.

The Reproductive System

Male and Female Structures

• Male: Testes, duct system, accessory glands, penis.

• Female: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia.

Additional info:

• This summary covers the foundational chapters of a typical Anatomy & Physiology course, integrating definitions, examples, and diagrams for effective exam preparation.