Comprehensive Study Notes for Bio 210 Midterm: Human Anatomy & Physiology Core Concepts

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Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
Physiology: The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.
Gross Anatomy: Examines large, visible structures (e.g., organs, muscles).
Microscopic Anatomy: Studies structures too small to be seen with the naked eye (e.g., cells, tissues).
Cellular Anatomy: Focuses on the structure and function of cells.
Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in the body, including catabolism (breaking down molecules) and anabolism (building molecules).
Body’s Thermostat: The hypothalamus in the brain regulates body temperature.
Lumen: The inside space of a tubular structure, such as a blood vessel or intestine.

The abdomen is divided into four quadrants for anatomical reference:
- Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ): Contains liver, gallbladder, right kidney, portions of stomach and intestines.
- Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ): Contains stomach, spleen, left kidney, pancreas, portions of colon.
- Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ): Contains appendix, right ovary and fallopian tube (in females), right ureter.
- Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ): Contains left ovary and fallopian tube (in females), left ureter, sigmoid colon.

Atom: The smallest unit of an element, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Neutral Atom: Has equal numbers of protons and electrons.
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Tritium is a hydrogen isotope with one proton and two neutrons.
Covalent Bonds: Atoms share electrons. Example: H2O (water).
Ionic Bonds: Atoms transfer electrons, forming charged ions. Example: NaCl (table salt).
Polar Molecule: Has unequal sharing of electrons, resulting in partial charges (e.g., water).
What makes an atom combine? Atoms combine to achieve a stable electron configuration (octet rule).
Which element is least likely to combine? Helium (a noble gas) is chemically inert due to a full valence shell.

Salt: An ionic compound formed from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base.
Functions: Electrolyte balance, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction.

Carbohydrates: Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Main energy source for cells.
Sucrose Formation: Involves the removal of water (dehydration synthesis).
Amino Group: –NH2, found in amino acids.
Enzymes: Biological catalysts, mostly proteins. Digestive enzymes are hydrolases (break down molecules by adding water).
Substrate: The reactant on which an enzyme acts.
Catalyst: Substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being consumed.
What affects enzyme function? Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, presence of inhibitors.
Energy production: ATP is a nucleotide; glucose is not.

Conduction: Direct transfer of heat between molecules (e.g., touching a hot object).
Convection: Transfer of heat by movement of fluids or air (e.g., blood flow).
Radiation: Transfer of heat in the form of infrared rays (e.g., body radiating heat to the environment).

Cell Cycle Stages:
- Interphase: Cell grows and DNA replicates.
- Mitosis: Division of the nucleus.
- Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.
Diploid (2n): Normal body cells with two sets of chromosomes.
Haploid (n): Gametes (sperm/egg) with one set of chromosomes. Number in gamete = half the diploid number.

DNA Base Pairing: Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T); Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).
RNA Base Pairing: Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U); Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).

Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).
Mitochondria: Site of ATP (energy) production.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.
Lysosomes: Vesicles containing digestive enzymes; break down waste.
Vesicles pinched off the Golgi: Lysosomes and secretory vesicles.
Blood-brain barrier cells: Astrocytes (a type of glial cell) help form the barrier.

Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities.
Stratified Keratinized Epithelium: Found in the epidermis of the skin; provides protection.
Non-stratified Epithelium: Simple epithelia; found in areas of absorption and filtration (e.g., lining of intestines).
Cilia: Hair-like projections found on epithelial cells in the respiratory tract (e.g., trachea) to move mucus.
Functions of Tissues: Protection, absorption, secretion, movement, support.

Types:
- Merocrine: Secrete products by exocytosis (e.g., sweat glands).
- Apocrine: Part of cell pinches off (e.g., mammary glands).
- Holocrine: Entire cell ruptures to release product (e.g., sebaceous glands).

Layers of the Dermis:
- Papillary Layer: Thin, superficial; contains capillaries and sensory neurons.
- Reticular Layer: Thick, deep; provides strength and elasticity.
Hypodermis: Subcutaneous layer; stores fat, anchors skin, insulates body.
Surface Film of Skin: Mixture of sweat, sebum, and desquamated cells; varies by body region due to gland density and activity.
Sebum: Oily secretion from sebaceous glands; lubricates and waterproofs skin and hair.
Parts of a Hair: Shaft (visible), root (below skin), follicle (surrounds root), bulb (base of follicle).

Enzyme reactions are highly specific; the active site of the enzyme binds only to its specific substrate.
Carbohydrates can be classified as monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), or polysaccharides (glycogen).
Hydrogen bonds are important in stabilizing the structure of DNA and proteins.