Exam 1 Review: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology (Chapters 1-4)

Principles of Anatomy & Physiology

Structure and Function

The relationship between structure and function is a foundational concept in anatomy and physiology. The form of a biological structure is closely related to its role in the body.

• Principle of Complementarity: Structure determines function; for example, the shape of red blood cells allows them to carry oxygen efficiently.

• Application: Understanding organ shapes helps explain their physiological roles.

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

Homeostasis refers to the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment. Feedback mechanisms regulate physiological processes.

• Negative Feedback: Reduces the effect of a stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: Enhances the effect of a stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

• Example: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin.

Anatomical Terminology

Body Regions, Planes, and Cavities

Accurate anatomical terminology is essential for describing locations and relationships in the body.

• Body Planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse.

• Body Cavities: Dorsal (cranial, vertebral), ventral (thoracic, abdominopelvic).

• Directional Terms: Superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal.

• Example: The heart is medial to the lungs.

Chemistry of Life

Serous Fluid

Serous fluid is a lubricating fluid found in body cavities, reducing friction between organs.

Ions and Chemical Bonds

• Ions: Charged particles; cations are positive, anions are negative.

• Ionic Bonds: Formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms.

• Covalent Bonds: Formed by the sharing of electrons.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules, important in water and DNA structure.

pH Scale

The pH scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

• Acidic: pH < 7

• Neutral: pH = 7

• Basic: pH > 7

• Formula: $pH = -\log[H^+]$

Biomolecules

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as energy sources and structural components.

• Monomers: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)

• Polymers: Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen)

• Function: Energy storage, cell structure

Proteins

Proteins are polymers of amino acids and perform a wide range of functions in the body.

• Monomers: Amino acids

• Polymers: Polypeptides

• Function: Enzymes, structural support, transport, signaling

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.

• Monomers: Nucleotides

• Polymers: DNA, RNA

• Function: Genetic information storage and transfer

Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic molecules important for energy storage and membrane structure.

• Saturated Fats: No double bonds; solid at room temperature

• Unsaturated Fats: One or more double bonds; liquid at room temperature

Cell Membrane and Transport

Plasma Membrane Structure

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

• Function: Regulates entry and exit of substances

Passive vs. Active Transport

• Passive Transport: Movement of substances without energy input (e.g., diffusion, osmosis)

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient

Red Blood Cell Tonicity

Tonicity describes the effect of a solution on cell volume.

• Isotonic: No net water movement

• Hypotonic: Water enters cell; cell swells

• Hypertonic: Water leaves cell; cell shrinks

Cell Organelles and Structures

Major Organelles

Cell organelles perform specialized functions necessary for cell survival.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material

• Chromosomes: DNA-protein complexes

• Rough ER: Protein synthesis

• Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis

• Ribosomes: Protein assembly

• Golgi Body: Protein modification and sorting

• Lysosomes: Intracellular digestion

• Mitochondria: ATP production

• Cilia/Flagella: Movement

• Cytoskeleton: Structural support

• Cytoplasm: Site of metabolic reactions

Tissues

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines cavities. It is classified by cell shape and layers.

• Simple vs. Stratified: Single layer vs. multiple layers

• Cell Shapes: Squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube-shaped), columnar (tall)

• Functions: Protection, absorption, secretion

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue supports, binds, and protects organs. It consists of cells, fibers, and ground substance.

• Components: Ground substance, fibers, cells

• Functions: Support, protection, transport

• Examples: Areolar connective tissue, adipose tissue, regular and irregular dense connective tissue

Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissue is responsible for movement. It is classified by structure and control.

• Types:

  • Striated vs. Non-striated: Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated; smooth muscle is non-striated.

  • Voluntary vs. Involuntary: Skeletal muscle is voluntary; cardiac and smooth muscle are involuntary.

  • Single vs. Multi-nucleated: Skeletal muscle cells are multi-nucleated; cardiac and smooth muscle cells are single-nucleated.

Nervous Tissue

Types of Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is specialized for communication via electrical and chemical signals.

• Neurons: Transmit impulses

• Neuroglia: Support and protect neurons

Membranes

There are three types of epithelial membranes in the body.

• Mucous Membranes: Line body cavities open to the exterior

• Serous Membranes: Line closed body cavities

• Cutaneous Membrane: The skin

Glands

Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands

Glands are classified based on how they secrete their products.

• Endocrine Glands: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream

• Exocrine Glands: Secrete products into ducts leading to body surfaces or cavities

• Example: Sweat glands (exocrine), thyroid gland (endocrine)