Exam I Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology Basics

Definition and Scope

• Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology: The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery—how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities.

• Example: Studying the heart’s chambers (anatomy) vs. understanding how the heart pumps blood (physiology).

Levels of Organization

• Cells: Basic unit of life.

• Tissues: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Organs: Structures composed of at least two tissue types that perform specific functions.

• Organ Systems: Groups of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose.

• Organism: The living individual.

Diagnostic Techniques

• Palpation: Feeling organs with hands.

• Percussion: Tapping on the body to listen for sounds indicating abnormalities.

• Auscultation: Listening to organ sounds with a stethoscope.

Metabolism and Homeostasis

• Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur within body cells, including catabolism (breaking down molecules) and anabolism (building molecules).

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Systems Involved: Nervous and endocrine systems are primary controllers of homeostasis.

Feedback Systems

• Components: Receptor (detects change), Control Center (processes information), Effector (carries out response).

• Negative Feedback: Reduces or shuts off the original stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: Enhances the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

• Example: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (negative feedback).

Signs vs. Symptoms

• Sign: Objective evidence of disease (e.g., fever, rash).

• Symptom: Subjective feeling reported by the patient (e.g., pain, fatigue).

Body Structure and Regions

Body Cavities and Organs

• Dorsal Cavity: Contains the cranial and vertebral cavities (brain and spinal cord).

• Ventral Cavity: Includes thoracic (heart, lungs) and abdominopelvic (digestive organs, bladder, reproductive organs) cavities.

Serous Membranes

• Serous Membranes: Thin, double-layered membranes covering organs and lining cavities.

• Visceral Layer: Covers the organ.

• Parietal Layer: Lines the cavity wall.

• Names: Pleura (lungs), Pericardium (heart), Peritoneum (abdominal organs).

Body Planes and Directional Terms

• Planes: Sagittal (left/right), Frontal (anterior/posterior), Transverse (superior/inferior).

• Directional Terms: Distal, proximal, caudal, cranial, ventral, dorsal, medial, lateral, superficial, deep.

Anatomical Regions

• Sacral: Area above the tailbone.

• Gluteal: Buttock region.

• Crural: Leg (between knee and ankle).

• Coxal: Hip region.

• Brachial: Arm region.

Membranes and Transport

Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

• Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

• Function: Selectively permeable barrier, communication, cell recognition.

Transport Mechanisms

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

• Facilitated Diffusion: Movement via protein channels or carriers.

• Active Transport: Movement against concentration gradient, requires energy (ATP).

• Endocytosis: Cell engulfs material into vesicles.

• Exocytosis: Vesicles fuse with membrane to release contents outside the cell.

Factors Affecting Diffusion and Osmosis

• Concentration gradient, temperature, molecular size, membrane permeability.

Solutions and Tonicity

• Solute: Substance dissolved in a solution.

• Solvent: Substance doing the dissolving (usually water in biology).

• Isotonic: Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell; no net water movement.

• Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside; water enters cell, may cause hemolysis (cell bursts).

• Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration outside; water leaves cell, may cause crenation (cell shrinks).

Cell Biology

Cell Organelles and Functions

• Nucleus: Contains DNA, controls cell activities.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP (energy) production.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER (protein synthesis), Smooth ER (lipid synthesis, detoxification).

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

• Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes for breakdown of waste.

• Centrioles: Organize cell division.

Genetic Material

• DNA: Genetic blueprint for protein synthesis.

• Chromosomes: Condensed DNA during cell division.

• Diploid: Two sets of chromosomes (somatic cells).

• Haploid: One set of chromosomes (gametes).

Cell Division

• Mitosis: Division of somatic cells; produces two identical diploid cells.

• Meiosis: Division for gamete production; produces four non-identical haploid cells.

• Phases of Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

Chemistry and Biochemistry

Atomic Structure

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus.

• Atomic Mass: Number of protons plus neutrons.

• Isotopes: Atoms with same number of protons but different neutrons.

• Ions: Atoms that have gained or lost electrons.

Chemical Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons between atoms (e.g., NaCl).

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons (e.g., H2O).

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules (important in water and protein structure).

pH Scale

• Measures hydrogen ion concentration.

• Scale: 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic), 7 is neutral.

• Acidity: High H+ concentration.

• Alkalinity: Low H+ concentration.

• Equation:

$\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[\text{H}^+]$

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose).

• Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides joined (e.g., sucrose, lactose).

• Polysaccharides: Many monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose).

• Health: Complex carbs (polysaccharides) are generally healthier than simple sugars.

Lipids

• Saturated Fats: No double bonds; solid at room temperature; found in animal fats; associated with artery plaque.

• Monounsaturated Fats: One double bond; found in olive oil, avocados; considered healthy.

• Polyunsaturated Fats: Multiple double bonds; found in fish, nuts; considered healthy.

• Cholesterol: Found in animal products; high levels linked to cardiovascular disease.

Proteins

• Structure: Made of amino acids; primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

• Peptide Bonds: Link amino acids together.

• Protein Synthesis: Involves transcription (DNA to mRNA) and translation (mRNA to protein).

• Codons: Triplets of nucleotides in mRNA that code for amino acids.

• Breaking Peptide Bonds: Hydrolysis reaction.

Equation for Peptide Bond Formation:

$\text{Amino acid}_1 + \text{Amino acid}_2 \rightarrow \text{Dipeptide} + \text{H}_2\text{O}$

Histology

Epithelial Tissue

• Simple Epithelium: Single cell layer; functions in absorption, secretion, filtration.

• Stratified Epithelium: Multiple layers; protection (e.g., skin).

• Squamous: Flat cells; found in lungs, blood vessels.

• Cuboidal: Cube-shaped; found in glands, kidney tubules.

• Columnar: Tall, column-like; found in digestive tract.

Connective Tissue

• Types: Loose (areolar), dense, adipose, cartilage, bone, blood.

• Functions: Support, protection, insulation, transport.

• Locations: Varies by type (e.g., adipose under skin, cartilage in joints).

Table: Types of Fats and Their Health Implications

Type of Fat	Structure	Sources	Health Impact
Saturated	No double bonds	Butter, red meat	Increases LDL, artery plaque
Monounsaturated	One double bond	Olive oil, avocados	Decreases LDL, heart healthy
Polyunsaturated	Multiple double bonds	Fish, nuts, seeds	Decreases LDL, heart healthy

Additional info: Some explanations and examples were expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard Anatomy & Physiology curriculum.