Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology: Medical Terminology, Structural Organization, and Basic Chemistry

Medical Terminology

Root Words

Root words express the main element of a medical term, most often referring to a body part or organ.

• Definition: The core meaning of a term.

• Example: cardi (heart), hepat (liver).

Prefix

A prefix is a modifier attached to the beginning of a word, usually indicating location, time, number, or status.

• Example: pre- (before), sub- (under).

Suffix

A suffix is a modifier attached to the end of a word, usually indicating procedure, condition, or disorder.

• Example: -itis (inflammation), -ectomy (removal).

Combining Forms

Used to combine root words, often with a vowel to ease pronunciation.

• Vowel is used when the next syllable begins with a consonant.

• No vowel is used when the next syllable begins with a vowel.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

• Abbreviations: Shortened forms of words or phrases (e.g., BP for blood pressure).

• Acronyms: Formed from the initial letters of a phrase (e.g., CPR for cardiopulmonary resuscitation).

Symbols, Eponyms, Synonyms, Antonyms, and Plural Forms

• Symbols: Letters or numbers representing a thing, function, or process (e.g., Na for sodium).

• Eponyms: Terms named after people (e.g., Fallopian tube).

• Synonyms: Words with the same meaning.

• Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings.

• Plural Forms: Endings that pluralize words (e.g., ae for a, ices for ix).

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of structure in living organisms.

• Gross Anatomy: Structures visible to the naked eye (regional, surface, systemic).

• Microscopic Anatomy: Structures seen with a microscope (cytology, histology).

• Developmental Anatomy: Study of structural changes throughout life (e.g., embryology).

Physiology

Physiology is the study of function in living organisms.

• Molecular, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, and Organism Physiology: Different levels at which physiological processes are studied.

Principle of Complementarity

Structure and function are interrelated; what a structure can do depends on its form.

• Form follows function: The shape of a body part enables its function.

• Function reflects structure: The function always reflects the structure.

Levels of Structural Organization

Biological organization proceeds from simple to complex:

1. Chemical

2. Molecular

3. Cellular

4. Tissue

5. Organ

6. Organ System

7. Organism

Organ Systems Overview

Integumentary System

• Creates boundary from external environment

• Protects deeper tissues, synthesizes vitamin D, regulates temperature

• Houses sensory receptors, sweat, and oil glands

Skeletal System

• Protects and supports organs

• Framework for muscle attachment

• Manufactures blood cells, stores minerals (e.g., calcium)

Muscular System

• Allows manipulation of environment, locomotion, facial expression

• Maintains posture, produces heat

Nervous System

• Fast-acting control system

• Responds to internal/external changes by activating muscles/glands

Endocrine System

• Hormone-secreting glands

• Slow-acting control system

• Regulates growth, reproduction, nutrient use

Cardiovascular System

• Heart pumps blood

• Blood vessels transport blood, oxygen, nutrients, wastes, CO2

Lymphatic/Immune System

• Returns leaked fluid to blood

• Disposes of debris, houses white blood cells

• Mounts immune response

Respiratory System

• Supplies oxygen, removes carbon dioxide

• Gas exchange in lungs

Digestive System

• Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates waste

Urinary System

• Eliminates nitrogenous wastes

• Regulates water, electrolytes, acid-base balance

Reproductive System

• Production of offspring and sex hormones

Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining Boundaries: Separation of internal and external environments

• Movement: Muscular and skeletal movement, movement of substances

• Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli

• Digestion: Breakdown and absorption of food

• Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body

  • Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules

  • Anabolism: Synthesis of molecules

• Excretion: Removal of wastes

• Reproduction: Cellular and organismal reproduction

• Growth: Increase in size and number of cells

Survival Needs

• Nutrients: For energy and cell maintenance

• Oxygen: Required for cellular respiration

• Water: Universal solvent, body reactions

• Normal body temperature: For proper metabolic reactions

• Atmospheric pressure: For gas exchange

Terminology for Anatomy

Normal Anatomic Position

• Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward

Directional Terms

• Superior: Toward the head

• Inferior: Away from the head

• Anterior (Ventral): Toward the front

• Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back

• Medial: Toward the midline

• Lateral: Away from the midline

• Proximal: Nearer to body core

• Distal: Farther from body core

• Superficial: Closer to the surface

• Deep: Further from the surface

• Ipsilateral: Same side

• Contralateral: Opposite side

• Axial: Head, spine, trunk

• Appendicular: Limbs

Body Planes

• Median (midsagittal): Midline

• Frontal (coronal): Side to side

• Transverse: Top to bottom

Body Cavities

• Dorsal Cavity: Cranial and vertebral cavities (protects nervous system)

• Ventral Cavity: Thoracic (pleural, pericardial, mediastinal) and abdominopelvic (abdominal, pelvic) cavities

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

• 9 regions: Right/Left Hypochondriac, Lumbar, Inguinal (Iliac), Epigastric, Umbilical, Hypogastric (Pubic)

• 4 quadrants: Right/Left Upper, Right/Left Lower

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment.

• Nervous System: Fast-acting, uses nerve impulses

• Endocrine System: Slow-acting, uses hormones

• Dynamic State of Equilibrium: Constant internal adjustments

Control Mechanisms

• Receptor (Sensor): Monitors environment, detects changes

• Control Center: Determines set point, processes input, determines response

• Effector: Carries out response (muscle or gland)

Feedback Loops

• Negative Feedback: Reduces or shuts off stimulus, maintains homeostasis (e.g., body temperature regulation)

• Positive Feedback: Increases stimulus, usually short-lived (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions)

Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Matter and Energy

• Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space

• States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas, plasma

• Energy: The ability to do work

  • Potential Energy: Stored energy

  • Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion

• Types of Energy: Chemical, electrical, mechanical, radiant

• In the body, energy is stored in chemical bonds (e.g., ATP)

Atoms and Elements

• All matter is made of atoms

• Atoms have a nucleus (protons, neutrons) and electrons

• Atomic Number: Number of protons

• Atomic Weight: Number of protons + neutrons

• Elements are organized in the periodic table (118 elements)

Inorganic Compounds

• Water: Most abundant, high heat capacity, polarity, chemical reactivity, cushioning

• Salts: Electrolytes that dissociate in water, conduct electricity (e.g., Na+, K+, Cl-, Mg2+)

• Acids: Release hydrogen ions (proton donors)

• Bases: Accept hydrogen ions (proton acceptors)

• pH: Logarithmic scale (0-14), 7 is neutral, <7 acidic, >7 basic

Organic Compounds

• Contain carbon covalently bonded to other elements

• Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

• Contain C, H, O; sugars and starches

• Monosaccharides: Single sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose)

• Disaccharides: Two sugars (sucrose, lactose, maltose)

• Polysaccharides: Many sugars (glycogen in animals, starch in plants, cellulose, chitin)

Lipids

• Fatty acids and derivatives, contain C, H, O, sometimes N and P

• Neutral fats: Triglycerides (glycerol + 3 fatty acids)

• Phospholipids: One fatty acid replaced with phosphate (polar and nonpolar regions)

• Cholesterol: Essential for membranes and hormones

Proteins

• Made of amino acids (20 types)

• Primary structure: Sequence of amino acids

• Secondary structure: Alpha helix, beta pleated sheet

• Tertiary structure: 3D folding

• Quaternary structure: Multiple polypeptides (e.g., hemoglobin)

• Functions: Structural (hair, nails), regulatory (hormones), contractile (muscle), transport (hemoglobin), immunological (antibodies), catalytic (enzymes)

Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA: Store and transmit genetic information

• ATP: Main energy currency of the cell

The Cell

Cell Theory

• The cell is the smallest structural and functional living unit

• Organismal functions depend on cell functions

• Cell activities depend on subcellular structures

Cell Structure

• Plasma Membrane: Flexible outer boundary

• Cytoplasm: Intracellular fluid with organelles

• Nucleus: Control center, contains DNA

Nucleus

• Most cells have one nucleus (some have more)

• Parts: Nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin (chromosomes), nucleoplasm

• Nucleolus: Site of ribosome synthesis

• Chromatin: DNA and proteins (histones), condenses to chromosomes during cell division

Cytoplasm and Organelles

• Mostly water (cytosol)

• Organelles: Machinery of the cell (e.g., mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes)

• Golgi Apparatus: Packages proteins and fats for transport

• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes