Semester 1 Exam Review Guide – Honors Anatomy & Physiology

Unit 1 – Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology (Chapter 1)

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

This unit introduces the foundational concepts of anatomy and physiology, including the organization of the human body and the characteristics of living organisms.

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology is the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.

• Key differences: Anatomy focuses on structure; physiology focuses on function.

Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical level: Atoms combine to form molecules.

• Cellular level: Cells are made up of molecules.

• Tissue level: Tissues consist of similar types of cells.

• Organ level: Organs are made up of different types of tissues.

• Organ system level: Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.

• Organismal level: The human organism is made up of many organ systems.

Organ Systems of the Body

• There are 11 major organ systems, each with specific functions (e.g., integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive).

• Each system contributes to homeostasis and overall body function.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Involves feedback mechanisms: negative feedback (most common) and positive feedback.

• Example: Regulation of body temperature via sweating or shivering.

Unit 2 – Tissues and Integumentary System (Chapters 4 and 5)

Overview of Tissues

Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function. There are four basic tissue types in the human body.

• Epithelial tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities.

• Connective tissue: Supports, protects, and binds other tissues together.

• Muscle tissue: Responsible for movement.

• Nervous tissue: Initiates and transmits electrical impulses.

Integumentary System

• Composed of the skin and its derivatives (hair, nails, glands).

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, metabolic functions, blood reservoir, excretion.

• Skin layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (deepest, not always considered part of skin).

• Cells of the epidermis: Keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, tactile cells.

• Skin color is determined by melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin.

• Common disorders: Burns, skin cancer (basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma).

Unit 3 – Bones and Skeletal System (Chapters 6 and 7)

Functions and Classification of Bones

• Functions: Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation (hematopoiesis), triglyceride storage, hormone production.

• Bones are classified by shape: long, short, flat, irregular.

Bone Structure and Development

• Gross anatomy: Compact bone (dense outer layer), spongy bone (honeycomb of trabeculae).

• Microscopic anatomy: Osteons (Haversian systems), lamellae, lacunae, canaliculi.

• Bone development: Ossification (osteogenesis) occurs via intramembranous or endochondral processes.

• Growth in length occurs at the epiphyseal plate; growth in width by appositional growth.

Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

• Axial skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, rib cage.

• Appendicular skeleton: Limbs and girdles (pectoral and pelvic).

• Be able to identify major bones and their features.

Unit 4 – Joints and Muscular System (Chapters 8, 9, and 10)

Classification of Joints

• Joints (articulations) are classified by structure and function.

• Structural classification: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.

• Functional classification: Synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), diarthroses (freely movable).

• Synovial joints: Most common and freely movable; contain synovial fluid.

Movements at Synovial Joints

• Types of movements: Gliding, angular, rotation, special movements (e.g., supination, pronation).

• Examples: Flexion/extension at the elbow, abduction/adduction at the hip.

Muscle Tissue and Contraction

• Three types of muscle tissue: Skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

• Skeletal muscle structure: Muscle fiber, myofibrils, sarcomeres (functional unit).

• Muscle contraction: Sliding filament model—actin and myosin filaments slide past each other.

• Neuromuscular junction: Site where motor neuron stimulates muscle fiber.

• Excitation-contraction coupling: Sequence of events linking action potential to contraction.

• Cross bridge cycle: Myosin heads bind to actin, pivot, detach, and re-cock.

Major Muscles and Actions

• Identify major skeletal muscles and their actions (e.g., flexors, extensors, abductors, adductors).

• Muscle naming conventions: Location, shape, size, direction of fibers, number of origins, location of attachments, action.

Additional info:

• This review guide is structured as a checklist for exam preparation, referencing textbook sections, figures, and review questions.

• Students are encouraged to use the textbook, online resources, and class notes for comprehensive study.