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General Biology: Cellular Processes and Cell Structure

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  • General equation for cellular respiration

    Glucose and oxygen are used to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. The overall reaction converts chemical energy in glucose to usable energy in ATP.

  • Stages of cellular respiration

    Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Each stage uses or produces specific molecules like NADH, FADH2, ATP, CO2, and H+ gradients.

  • Role of NADH and FADH2 in cellular respiration

    They carry electrons to the electron transport chain, where their energy is used to create a proton gradient for ATP synthesis.

  • Difference between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation

    Substrate-level phosphorylation directly forms ATP during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle; oxidative phosphorylation uses the proton gradient from the electron transport chain to produce ATP.

  • Function of fermentation

    Allows ATP production without oxygen by regenerating NAD+ from NADH, enabling glycolysis to continue. Produces less ATP per glucose than aerobic respiration.

  • Types of fermentation and example organisms

    Lactic acid fermentation (e.g., muscle cells, some bacteria) and ethanol fermentation (e.g., yeast).

  • Photosynthesis overall formula and components

    Uses light energy, water, and CO2 to produce glucose and oxygen. Light reactions produce ATP and NADPH; Calvin cycle uses these to fix carbon into sugars.

  • Energy transformations in photosynthesis

    Light energy is converted to chemical energy in ATP and NADPH during light reactions, then used to synthesize sugars in the Calvin cycle.

  • Difference between C3, C4, and CAM photosynthesis

    C4 and CAM photosynthesis minimize water loss and photorespiration, advantageous in dry environments compared to C3 photosynthesis.

  • Components of prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cells

    Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotes have nucleus and organelles like mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.

  • Endomembrane system function

    Includes organelles like ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes; responsible for protein and lipid synthesis, modification, and transport within the cell.

  • Phases of the cell cycle

    G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (preparation for mitosis), and M (mitosis). Cells grow, replicate DNA, and divide during these phases.

  • Key events in mitosis phases

    Prophase: chromosomes condense; Metaphase: chromosomes align; Anaphase: sister chromatids separate; Telophase: nuclei reform; Cytokinesis divides the cell.

  • Role of mitosis in organisms

    Enables growth, tissue repair, and asexual reproduction by producing genetically identical daughter cells.

  • DNA replication process

    Involves helicase unwinding DNA, primase laying RNA primers, DNA polymerases synthesizing new strands, ligase joining fragments, and proofreading for errors.

  • Leading vs lagging strand replication

    Leading strand is synthesized continuously; lagging strand is synthesized in Okazaki fragments that are later joined.

  • Function of telomeres

    Protect chromosome ends from degradation and prevent loss of genetic information during replication, especially in germ cells.

  • Energy source for DNA polymerization

    Nucleotide triphosphates provide energy for forming phosphodiester bonds during DNA synthesis.

  • DNA repair mechanisms

    DNA polymerase proofreading and excision repair correct replication errors to maintain genome integrity.

  • Consequence of DNA repair failure

    Leads to mutations and diseases like xeroderma pigmentosum, which causes sensitivity to UV light and increased cancer risk.