BIO 111LN Final Exam Study Guide – Step-by-Step Guidance

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

Q1. Explain ‘exponential’ bacterial growth and list the 4 phases of bacterial growth.

Background

Topic: Microbial Growth

This question tests your understanding of how bacteria multiply and the typical growth curve observed in a closed system (like a lab culture).

Key Terms and Concepts:

Exponential Growth: A pattern where the population doubles at regular intervals.
Bacterial Growth Curve: The four phases are lag, log (exponential), stationary, and death.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define what is meant by 'exponential growth' in the context of bacteria. Think about how the population changes over time.
List the four phases of bacterial growth in order, and briefly describe what happens in each phase.
Consider why the growth rate changes during each phase (e.g., nutrient availability, waste accumulation).

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Q2. Does number of chromosomes correlate to an organism’s complexity? Why or why not?

Background

Topic: Chromosome Number and Biological Complexity

This question asks you to analyze whether having more chromosomes means an organism is more complex, and to explain your reasoning.

Key Terms:

Chromosome: A DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material of an organism.
Complexity: Refers to the structural and functional sophistication of an organism.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall examples of organisms with varying chromosome numbers (e.g., humans, ferns, fruit flies).
Think about whether more chromosomes always mean more genes or more complexity.
Explain why chromosome number does or does not correlate with complexity, referencing your homework or textbook examples.

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Q3. Explain the normal function of tumor suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes. If both copies of a tumor suppressor gene are mutated, what is the effect on the cell? If a copy of a proto-oncogene is mutated, what is the effect on the cell? (Use the “gas” and “brakes” analogy.)

Background

Topic: Cancer Genetics

This question tests your understanding of how certain genes regulate cell division and how mutations can lead to cancer.

Key Terms:

Tumor Suppressor Genes: Genes that slow down cell division (the "brakes").
Proto-oncogenes: Genes that promote cell division (the "gas pedal").
Mutation: A change in DNA sequence that can affect gene function.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Describe the normal role of tumor suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes in the cell cycle.
Explain what happens if both copies of a tumor suppressor gene are mutated (think about the loss of "brakes").
Explain what happens if a proto-oncogene is mutated (think about the "gas pedal" analogy).
Relate these changes to the development of cancer.

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Q4. Cells have 3 choices, all beginning with the letter “D”. List and briefly explain each choice.

Background

Topic: Cell Fate Decisions

This question asks you to recall the three main pathways a cell can take, all starting with "D".

Key Terms:

Think about cell division, differentiation, and death (apoptosis).

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the three choices, each starting with "D".
Briefly define what each process means for the cell.
Give an example or context for each choice.

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Q5. Be able to describe or draw the cell cycle.

Background

Topic: Cell Cycle

This question tests your ability to recall the stages of the cell cycle and their order.

Key Terms:

Cell Cycle: The ordered sequence of events that a cell goes through from one division to the next.
Phases include G1, S, G2, and M.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main phases of the cell cycle in order.
Briefly describe what happens in each phase (e.g., DNA replication in S phase).
Consider drawing a simple diagram to visualize the cycle.

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Q6. Name 2 cell cycle checkpoints and explain what is required to “pass” the checkpoint.

Background

Topic: Cell Cycle Regulation

This question asks you to identify checkpoints in the cell cycle and what the cell checks for at each point.

Key Terms:

Checkpoint: A control point where stop and go-ahead signals regulate the cycle.
Common checkpoints: G1/S and G2/M.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Name two major checkpoints in the cell cycle.
For each, explain what the cell is checking (e.g., DNA damage, proper replication).
Describe what happens if the cell does not meet the requirements.

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Q7. Explain this statement: “Cancer is a problem of too much cell division and too little cell death.”

Background

Topic: Cancer Biology

This question asks you to interpret how disruptions in cell division and cell death contribute to cancer.

Key Terms:

Cell Division: Process by which cells reproduce.
Cell Death (Apoptosis): Programmed cell death that removes damaged cells.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Explain how normal cell division and cell death are balanced in healthy tissue.
Describe what happens when this balance is disrupted (e.g., increased division, decreased death).
Relate this imbalance to tumor formation.

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Q8. Contrast mitosis and meiosis, including at least 5 differences.

Background

Topic: Cell Division

This question tests your ability to compare and contrast the two main types of eukaryotic cell division.

Key Terms:

Mitosis: Division that produces identical somatic cells.
Meiosis: Division that produces gametes with half the chromosome number.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List at least five differences between mitosis and meiosis (e.g., number of divisions, genetic variation, chromosome number in daughter cells).
For each difference, briefly explain or give an example.
Consider using a table or bullet points for clarity.

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Q9. Genetic diversity is increased due to crossing over, independent assortment, and random fertilization. Explain how each of these is important for genetic diversity.

Background

Topic: Sources of Genetic Variation

This question asks you to explain the mechanisms that increase genetic diversity during sexual reproduction.

Key Terms:

Crossing Over: Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during meiosis I.
Independent Assortment: Random distribution of maternal and paternal chromosomes to gametes.
Random Fertilization: Any sperm can fertilize any egg.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define each mechanism (crossing over, independent assortment, random fertilization).
Explain how each contributes to genetic diversity in offspring.
Give an example or analogy for each process.

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Q10. Explain why you are not genetically identical to your siblings.

Background

Topic: Genetic Variation Among Siblings

This question tests your understanding of how meiosis and fertilization create unique genetic combinations.

Key Terms:

Refer to crossing over, independent assortment, and random fertilization.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall how gametes are formed and why each gamete is genetically unique.
Explain how the combination of two unique gametes leads to genetic differences among siblings.
Mention exceptions (e.g., identical twins).

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Q11. Explain how genetic variability reduces susceptibility to disease.

Background

Topic: Evolutionary Advantage of Genetic Diversity

This question asks you to connect genetic diversity to population health and disease resistance.

Key Terms:

Genetic Variability: Differences in DNA among individuals.
Susceptibility: Likelihood of being affected by disease.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Explain how genetic differences can affect an individual's response to pathogens.
Describe why populations with more genetic diversity are less likely to be wiped out by a single disease.
Give an example (e.g., sickle cell trait and malaria resistance).

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Q12. You must be able to solve genetics problems. Know how to work with homozygous and heterozygous traits.

Background

Topic: Mendelian Genetics

This question tests your ability to set up and solve basic genetics problems involving dominant and recessive alleles.

Key Terms and Formulas:

Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a trait (e.g., AA or aa).
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a trait (e.g., Aa).
Punnett Square: A tool to predict genotype and phenotype ratios.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify the genotypes of the parents (homozygous or heterozygous).
Set up a Punnett square to show possible allele combinations in offspring.
Determine the genotype and phenotype ratios from the Punnett square.

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Q13. Understand genotype and phenotype and how to report these in a cross.

Background

Topic: Genetics Vocabulary

This question asks you to distinguish between genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype (observable traits) and report them in genetic crosses.

Key Terms:

Genotype: The genetic makeup (e.g., AA, Aa, aa).
Phenotype: The physical expression (e.g., tall, short).

Step-by-Step Guidance

After completing a Punnett square, count the number of each genotype and phenotype among the offspring.
Report the ratios or percentages for both genotype and phenotype.
Be clear about which is which in your answer.

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Q14. What does it mean if a characteristic displays incomplete dominance or co-dominance?

Background

Topic: Non-Mendelian Inheritance

This question tests your understanding of inheritance patterns that differ from simple dominance/recessiveness.

Key Terms:

Incomplete Dominance: Heterozygote shows a blend of both traits.
Co-dominance: Both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define incomplete dominance and give an example (e.g., red and white flowers making pink).
Define co-dominance and give an example (e.g., AB blood type).
Explain how these differ from complete dominance.

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Q15. If I give you information about a disease – autosomal, dominant or recessive, be able to explain the inheritance pattern.

Background

Topic: Patterns of Inheritance

This question asks you to interpret how a trait or disease is passed down based on whether it is autosomal dominant or recessive.

Key Terms:

Autosomal: Located on non-sex chromosomes.
Dominant: Only one copy needed to show the trait.
Recessive: Two copies needed to show the trait.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify if the trait is autosomal dominant or recessive based on the description.
Explain how the trait would appear in offspring depending on the parents' genotypes.
Draw a simple Punnett square if needed to illustrate inheritance.

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Q16. Understand what is meant by polygenic inheritance (look at your skin color homework problem).

Background

Topic: Polygenic Traits

This question tests your understanding of traits controlled by multiple genes, leading to a range of phenotypes.

Key Terms:

Polygenic Inheritance: Trait controlled by two or more genes (e.g., skin color, height).

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define polygenic inheritance and give an example.
Explain how multiple genes contribute to a continuous range of phenotypes.
Relate this to the skin color problem from your homework.

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Q17. Be sure you can apply your knowledge of genetic inheritance to a pedigree.

Background

Topic: Pedigree Analysis

This question asks you to interpret family trees to determine inheritance patterns.

Key Terms:

Pedigree: A diagram showing family relationships and inheritance of traits.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify the symbols used in pedigrees (squares, circles, shading).
Determine if the trait is dominant, recessive, autosomal, or sex-linked based on the pattern.
Explain your reasoning using evidence from the pedigree.

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Q18. Be able to explain the role of Franklin and of Watson and Crick in determining the structure of DNA.

Background

Topic: History of DNA Discovery

This question tests your knowledge of the scientists who contributed to our understanding of DNA structure.

Key Terms:

Rosalind Franklin: Provided X-ray diffraction images of DNA.
Watson and Crick: Built the double helix model of DNA.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Describe Franklin's contribution (X-ray crystallography).
Explain how Watson and Crick used this data to model DNA's structure.
Discuss the importance of collaboration in scientific discovery.

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Q19. Be able to describe the structure of DNA, including base pairing rules. Explain the importance of hydrogen bonding for double stranded DNA.

Background

Topic: DNA Structure

This question asks you to recall the double helix structure, base pairing, and the role of hydrogen bonds.

Key Terms and Formulas:

Double Helix: Two strands twisted around each other.
Base Pairing: Adenine with Thymine, Guanine with Cytosine.
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak bonds holding base pairs together.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Describe the overall structure of DNA (double helix, sugar-phosphate backbone).
State the base pairing rules (A-T, G-C).
Explain why hydrogen bonds are important for DNA function (e.g., stability, replication).

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Q20. Be able to explain how alternative splicing can allow production of multiple protein products from one gene.

Background

Topic: Gene Expression and Alternative Splicing

This question tests your understanding of how one gene can code for multiple proteins through RNA processing.

Key Terms:

Alternative Splicing: Different combinations of exons are joined to produce multiple mRNAs.
Exon: Coding region of a gene.
Intron: Non-coding region removed during splicing.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define alternative splicing and its role in gene expression.
Explain how different mRNA transcripts can be produced from the same gene.
Relate this to the idea that "one gene = one protein" is not always true.

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Q21. The Lac Operon is a classic example of control of gene expression. Be able to explain how it works and why it is important.

Background

Topic: Prokaryotic Gene Regulation

This question asks you to describe the structure and function of the lac operon in bacteria.

Key Terms:

Lac Operon: A group of genes involved in lactose metabolism in E. coli.
Operator, Promoter, Repressor: Key regulatory elements.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Describe the components of the lac operon (genes, promoter, operator, repressor).
Explain how the operon is turned on or off depending on the presence of lactose.
Discuss why this regulation is important for bacterial survival.

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Q22. Understand the importance of gene expression. You should be able to explain why your parents and grandparents’ “lifestyles” matter.

Background

Topic: Epigenetics and Gene Expression

This question asks you to connect environmental factors and lifestyle to gene expression and inheritance.

Key Terms:

Gene Expression: The process by which information from a gene is used to make a functional product.
Epigenetics: Heritable changes in gene expression not caused by changes in DNA sequence.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Explain how lifestyle factors (diet, stress, environment) can affect gene expression.
Describe how some changes can be passed to future generations (epigenetic inheritance).
Give an example of a lifestyle factor affecting gene expression.

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Q23. Be able to explain how genetic engineering could be used to address certain biological problems.

Background

Topic: Biotechnology

This question tests your understanding of how genetic engineering can solve real-world problems.

Key Terms:

Genetic Engineering: Direct manipulation of an organism's DNA.
Applications: Medicine, agriculture, environmental science.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify a biological problem (e.g., disease, crop failure).
Explain how genetic engineering could provide a solution (e.g., gene therapy, GM crops).
Discuss potential benefits and concerns.

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Q24. Thinking about the TED talk on gene editing, what kind of regulation (if any) would you want to see regarding this kind of technology? Be able to explain your position.

Background

Topic: Ethics of Biotechnology

This question asks you to consider the ethical and regulatory aspects of gene editing technologies.

Key Terms:

Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR that allow precise changes to DNA.
Regulation: Laws or guidelines governing technology use.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Summarize the main points from the TED talk regarding gene editing.
State your opinion on regulation (e.g., strict, moderate, minimal).
Support your position with reasons (e.g., safety, ethics, access).

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Q25. Be able to explain the advantage of PCR for forensic analysis. How might PCR and DNA fingerprinting be used together?

Background

Topic: DNA Technology in Forensics

This question tests your understanding of how PCR and DNA fingerprinting are used in crime scene investigations.

Key Terms:

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): Technique to amplify small amounts of DNA.
DNA Fingerprinting: Technique to identify individuals based on DNA patterns.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Explain why PCR is useful when only small amounts of DNA are available.
Describe how PCR can be used to generate enough DNA for fingerprinting.
Explain how DNA fingerprinting can match suspects to evidence.

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Q26. Understand what a genetically modified plant is. And be able to explain at least 2 potential advantages and disadvantages of GM crops.

Background

Topic: Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

This question asks you to define GM plants and discuss their pros and cons.

Key Terms:

Genetically Modified Plant: A plant whose DNA has been altered for desired traits.
Advantages: Increased yield, pest resistance, etc.
Disadvantages: Environmental concerns, ethical issues, etc.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Define what makes a plant genetically modified.
List at least two advantages of GM crops and explain each.
List at least two disadvantages and explain each.