BIOL-105 Lab Final Exam Study Guide: Human Anatomy and Physiology Essentials

Language of Anatomy

Body Planes, Directions, and Surface Terminology

Understanding anatomical terminology is essential for accurately describing locations and relationships of body structures.

• Body Planes: Imaginary lines dividing the body into sections.

  • Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

  • Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into right and left portions. The midsagittal plane divides it into equal halves.

  • Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

• Directional Terms: Used to describe the location of one body part relative to another.

  • Superior/Inferior: Above/below.

  • Anterior (Ventral)/Posterior (Dorsal): Front/back.

  • Medial/Lateral: Toward the midline/away from the midline.

  • Proximal/Distal: Closer to/farther from the point of attachment (used for limbs).

  • Superficial/Deep: Toward/away from the body surface.

• Surface Terminology: Terms such as cranial (head), brachial (arm), femoral (thigh), etc., specify regions of the body.

Microscope

Parts and Functions

The microscope is a fundamental tool for studying cells and tissues.

• Ocular Lens (Eyepiece): Magnifies the image, usually 10x.

• Objective Lenses: Provide various magnifications (e.g., 4x, 10x, 40x, 100x).

• Stage: Platform where the slide is placed.

• Coarse and Fine Focus Knobs: Adjust the focus of the image.

• Light Source: Illuminates the specimen.

• Condenser: Focuses light onto the specimen.

• Diaphragm: Regulates the amount of light.

Example: To view a tissue section, start with the lowest objective lens and use the coarse focus, then switch to higher magnification and fine focus for detail.

Cell Structure and Mitosis

Cell Organelles and Functions

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA); controls cell activities.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP production via cellular respiration.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough and Smooth): Protein and lipid synthesis.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for waste breakdown.

• Plasma Membrane: Regulates entry and exit of substances.

Plasma Membrane Structure and Role

• Phospholipid Bilayer: Provides a semi-permeable barrier.

• Proteins: Serve as channels, carriers, receptors, and enzymes.

• Carbohydrates: Involved in cell recognition.

Mitosis Phases

• Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope dissolves.

• Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell equator.

• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate to opposite poles.

• Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform, chromosomes decondense.

• Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm, forming two daughter cells.

Membrane Transport

Processes and Properties

• Simple Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration without energy input.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

• Facilitated Transport: Movement of substances via membrane proteins (channels/carriers); no energy required.

Lab Principles and Results

• Experiments often involve observing diffusion of dyes or osmosis in dialysis tubing to demonstrate selective permeability and concentration gradients.

Solutions and Tonicity

• Solution Components: Solvent (e.g., water) and solute (e.g., salt, sugar).

• Tonicity: Relative concentration of solutes outside vs. inside the cell.

  • Isotonic: Equal solute concentration; no net water movement.

  • Hypertonic: Higher solute outside; cell loses water (shrinks).

  • Hypotonic: Lower solute outside; cell gains water (swells).

Tissues

Epithelial Tissue Types and Functions

• Simple Squamous: Single layer, flat cells; diffusion/filtration (e.g., alveoli).

• Simple Cuboidal: Single layer, cube-shaped; secretion/absorption (e.g., kidney tubules).

• Simple Columnar: Single layer, tall cells; absorption/secretion (e.g., intestines).

• Stratified Squamous: Multiple layers; protection (e.g., skin, esophagus).

• Pseudostratified Columnar: Appears layered; secretion/movement (e.g., trachea).

• Transitional: Stretches (e.g., bladder).

Connective Tissue Types and Functions

• Areolar: Loose, supports and binds tissues.

• Adipose: Stores fat, insulates, cushions.

• Dense Regular: Parallel collagen fibers; tendons/ligaments.

• Cartilage: Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage; support and flexibility.

• Bone: Rigid support, protection, mineral storage.

• Blood: Transport of gases, nutrients, wastes.

Integumentary System

Skin Layers

• Epidermis: Outer layer; stratified squamous epithelium.

• Dermis: Middle layer; connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves.

• Hypodermis (Subcutaneous): Deepest; adipose tissue.

Accessory Structures (Appendages)

• Hair Follicle, Root, Shaft: Protection, sensation.

• Sebaceous Gland: Secretes sebum (oil) for lubrication.

• Sweat Glands: Eccrine (thermoregulation), apocrine (odor).

• Pacinian (Lamellar) Corpuscle: Deep pressure receptor.

• Arrector Pili Muscle: Causes hair to stand (goosebumps).

Skeletal System

Bone Tissue Structure and Categories

• Compact Bone: Dense, strong outer layer.

• Spongy Bone: Porous, contains red marrow.

• Bone Categories: Long (femur), short (carpals), flat (sternum), irregular (vertebrae).

Cartilage Types and Distribution

• Hyaline: Most common; ends of bones, nose, trachea.

• Elastic: Ear, epiglottis; flexible.

• Fibrocartilage: Intervertebral discs, menisci; strong, shock-absorbing.

Axial and Appendicular Skeletons

• Axial: Skull, vertebral column, rib cage.

• Appendicular: Limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles.

• Bone Markings: Projections, depressions, openings for muscle attachment, articulation, or passage of vessels/nerves.

Joints and Movements

• Fibrous Joints: Immovable (e.g., sutures of skull).

• Cartilaginous Joints: Slightly movable (e.g., intervertebral discs).

• Synovial Joints: Freely movable; have joint cavity (e.g., knee, shoulder).

• Types of Synovial Joints: Hinge, ball-and-socket, pivot, saddle, plane, condyloid.

• Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction.

Muscular System

Muscle Tissue Types and Identification

• Skeletal Muscle: Striated, voluntary, multinucleated.

• Cardiac Muscle: Striated, involuntary, intercalated discs.

• Smooth Muscle: Non-striated, involuntary, spindle-shaped.

Skeletal Muscle Cell Structure

• T-tubules: Conduct impulses deep into muscle fiber.

• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores and releases calcium ions.

• Sarcomere: Functional contractile unit; composed of actin and myosin filaments.

Neuromuscular Junction

• Site where a motor neuron stimulates a muscle fiber to contract.

• Includes synaptic knob, synaptic cleft, and motor end plate.

Connective Tissue Layers in Muscle

• Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle.

• Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles (bundles of fibers).

• Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers.

Nervous System

Motor Neuron Structure

• Cell Body (Soma): Contains nucleus and organelles.

• Dendrites: Receive signals.

• Axon: Transmits impulses away from cell body.

• Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters.

Nerve Organization

• Epineurium: Surrounds entire nerve.

• Perineurium: Surrounds nerve fascicles.

• Endoneurium: Surrounds individual axons.

Neuron Classification

• Structural: Multipolar, bipolar, unipolar.

• Functional: Sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), interneurons.

Neuroglial Cells and Functions

• Astrocytes: Support, blood-brain barrier (CNS).

• Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate CNS axons.

• Microglia: Immune defense (CNS).

• Ependymal Cells: Line ventricles, produce cerebrospinal fluid (CNS).

• Schwann Cells: Myelinate PNS axons.

• Satellite Cells: Support PNS neuron cell bodies.

Brain and Spinal Cord

Brain Regions and Functions

• Cerebrum: Higher brain functions (thought, memory, voluntary movement).

• Cerebellum: Coordination and balance.

• Diencephalon: Thalamus (relay center), hypothalamus (homeostasis).

• Brainstem: Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata (autonomic functions).

Spinal Cord Regions and Functions

• Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral: Each region controls specific body areas.

• Gray Matter: Cell bodies; White Matter: Myelinated axons.

Spinal Plexuses

• Cervical Plexus: Neck, diaphragm (phrenic nerve).

• Brachial Plexus: Upper limb.

• Lumbar Plexus: Lower limb (anterior).

• Sacral Plexus: Lower limb (posterior).

Spinal Reflexes

• Automatic, rapid responses to stimuli.

• Involve sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, and effector.

Senses

Ear and Eye Structures and Functions

• Ear: Outer (pinna, auditory canal), middle (ossicles), inner (cochlea, semicircular canals).

• Eye: Cornea, lens, retina, iris, optic nerve.

Snellen Eye Chart and Visual Conditions

• Snellen Chart: Measures visual acuity (clarity of vision).

• Myopia: Nearsightedness; image focuses in front of retina.

• Hyperopia: Farsightedness; image focuses behind retina.

Additional info: This guide covers foundational concepts in human anatomy and physiology, focusing on laboratory identification and understanding of structures and functions. For detailed muscle and bone lists, refer to specific lab handouts as indicated in your course materials.