Ecology, Animal Behavior, and Physiology Study Notes

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Global Climate and Biomes

Causes of Seasons on Earth

The seasons on Earth are caused by the tilt of the planet's axis relative to its orbit around the sun. This tilt results in varying angles of sunlight throughout the year, leading to changes in temperature and day length.

Axial Tilt: Earth is tilted at approximately 23.5°, causing different hemispheres to receive more direct sunlight at different times of the year.
Orbit: As Earth orbits the sun, the orientation of the tilt remains constant, leading to seasonal changes.
Example: During the Northern Hemisphere's summer, it is tilted toward the sun, resulting in longer days and warmer temperatures.

Factors Impacting Global Climate Patterns

Global climate is influenced by a variety of factors, including solar radiation, atmospheric circulation, ocean currents, and topography.

Solar Radiation: The amount of sunlight received varies by latitude.
Atmospheric Circulation: Wind patterns distribute heat and moisture.
Ocean Currents: Water movement redistributes heat globally.
Topography: Mountains and valleys affect local climate.
Example: The Gulf Stream warms Western Europe by transporting warm water from the tropics.

Heating and Cooling of the Earth

Earth's surface heats and cools unevenly due to differences in land and water properties, and the angle of sunlight.

Land vs. Water: Land heats and cools faster than water.
Albedo: Reflectivity of surfaces affects temperature.
Example: Coastal areas have milder climates due to water's high specific heat.

Heat Transfer Across the Earth

Heat is transferred across the planet through atmospheric and oceanic circulation, moving energy from equatorial regions to the poles.

North to South: Warm air and water move toward the poles.
East to West: Rotation of Earth influences wind and current direction (Coriolis effect).
Example: Trade winds and westerlies are major wind belts.

Biomes - Characteristics for Each Type

Biomes are large ecological areas with distinct climate, flora, and fauna. Each biome has unique characteristics.

Biome	Climate	Vegetation	Example
Tropical Rainforest	Warm, wet	Diverse, dense	Amazon Basin
Desert	Hot/cold, dry	Sparse, drought-resistant	Sahara
Temperate Grassland	Moderate, seasonal	Grasses, few trees	North American prairies
Taiga (Boreal Forest)	Cold, moderate precipitation	Conifers	Siberia
Tundra	Cold, dry	Mosses, lichens	Arctic
Additional info: Biomes also include aquatic types such as lakes and oceans.

Lake Turnover

Lake turnover is the seasonal mixing of water layers in lakes, redistributing nutrients and oxygen.

Occurs: In temperate climates during spring and fall.
Process: Surface water cools, becomes denser, and sinks, mixing with deeper water.
Importance: Supports aquatic life by replenishing oxygen and nutrients.

Animal Behavior and Physiology

Circannual Rhythms for Birds

Circannual rhythms are yearly cycles in behavior, such as migration and breeding, regulated by environmental cues.

Migration: Birds migrate seasonally in response to day length and temperature.
Breeding: Timed to maximize offspring survival.
Example: Arctic terns migrate from the Arctic to the Antarctic annually.

Bee Behavior

Bees exhibit complex behaviors, including communication, foraging, and navigation.

Communication: Bees use the "waggle dance" to indicate food location.
Foraging: Bees learn and remember flower locations.
Navigation: Use sun position and polarized light.

Animal Behavior as it Relates to Stimuli

Animals respond to environmental stimuli through innate and learned behaviors.

Innate Behavior: Genetically programmed, e.g., reflexes.
Learned Behavior: Acquired through experience.
Stimuli: Can be external (light, sound) or internal (hormones).

Behavior Modifications

Behavior can be modified by experience, environmental changes, or genetic factors.

Habituation: Decreased response to repeated stimulus.
Conditioning: Associative learning (classical and operant).
Example: Pavlov's dogs learned to associate a bell with food.

Learning in Animals

Learning is the process by which animals acquire new behaviors or information.

Imprinting: Early-life learning, e.g., ducklings following mother.
Spatial Learning: Remembering locations.
Social Learning: Observing others.

Sexual Dimorphism and Mating Behavior

Sexual dimorphism refers to differences in appearance between males and females, often related to mating strategies.

Physical Differences: Size, coloration, ornamentation.
Mating Behavior: Courtship displays, competition.
Example: Male peacocks have elaborate tails to attract females.

Vasopressin Receptor Gene

The vasopressin receptor gene influences social and mating behaviors in some animals.

Role: Affects bonding and parental care.
Example: Prairie voles with certain gene variants show monogamous behavior.

Natural Selection and Altruism

Altruism is behavior that benefits others at a cost to oneself, explained by natural selection through kin selection and reciprocal altruism.

Kin Selection: Helping relatives increases inclusive fitness.
Reciprocal Altruism: Helping others with expectation of future return.
Example: Vampire bats share food with unrelated individuals.

Body Systems and Signals (Chemical & Nervous)

Animals use chemical and nervous signals to coordinate body functions.

Chemical Signals: Hormones regulate processes (endocrine system).
Nervous Signals: Electrical impulses transmit information rapidly (nervous system).
Example: Adrenaline prepares body for "fight or flight".

Evolutionary Adaptations: Animals' Bodies and Environment

Animals evolve adaptations to survive in their environments.

Structural Adaptations: Physical traits (fur, claws).
Physiological Adaptations: Internal processes (thermoregulation).
Behavioral Adaptations: Actions (migration, hibernation).

Tissue Types: Structure, Function, Appearance

Animal bodies are composed of four main tissue types, each with distinct structure and function.

Tissue Type	Structure	Function	Appearance
Epithelial	Sheets of cells	Protection, absorption	Layered, tightly packed
Connective	Scattered cells in matrix	Support, binding	Fibrous, varied
Muscle	Long fibers	Movement	Striated or smooth
Nervous	Neurons, glia	Signal transmission	Branched, networked

Organ Systems

Organ systems are groups of organs working together to perform vital functions.

Examples: Digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous, endocrine, muscular, skeletal, immune, reproductive, excretory.
Integration: Systems interact to maintain homeostasis.

Metabolism

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism, including catabolism (breaking down molecules) and anabolism (building molecules).

Energy: Metabolic reactions require and release energy.
Example: Cellular respiration converts glucose to ATP.
Equation:

SMR & BMR

Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR) and Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) are measures of energy expenditure in animals.

SMR: Minimum metabolic rate of ectotherms at rest.
BMR: Minimum metabolic rate of endotherms at rest.
Factors: Age, size, activity, temperature.
Equation:

Additional info: BMR is typically measured in mammals and birds, while SMR is used for reptiles, amphibians, and fish.