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General Biology 1010: Comprehensive Study Notes

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Scientific Method & Life Basics

Overview of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic approach used in biology to investigate natural phenomena. It involves a series of steps to ensure objective and reproducible results.

  • Steps: Observation → Question → Hypothesis → Experiment → Analyze Data → Conclusion (can lead to new questions or revision).

  • Characteristics of Life: Organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth & development, response to stimuli, reproduction, adaptation, evolution.

  • Levels of Organization: Atom → Molecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere.

Chemistry of Life

Atoms, Molecules, and Bonds

All living things are composed of matter, which consists of atoms. Atoms combine to form molecules, which are the building blocks of cells.

  • Atoms: Protons (+, nucleus), neutrons (0, nucleus), electrons (−, orbitals).

  • Bonds: Covalent (shared electrons, strong), ionic (transfer electrons, moderate), hydrogen (weak but important for water & DNA).

Macromolecules

  • Carbohydrates: (CHO, short-term energy, glucose, starch).

  • Lipids: (long-term energy, membranes, fats, oils).

  • Proteins: (enzymes, hormones, structure, made of amino acids).

  • Nucleic Acids: (DNA & RNA, store and transmit genetic info).

Cells

Cell Theory and Types

The cell theory states that all living things are made of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and all cells come from pre-existing cells.

  • Prokaryotes: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles (e.g., bacteria, archaea).

  • Eukaryotes: Have nucleus & organelles (plants, animals, fungi, protists).

Organelles and Their Functions

  • Nucleus: Stores DNA.

  • Mitochondria: ATP production (cellular respiration).

  • Chloroplast: Photosynthesis (plants only).

  • Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Smooth ER (lipids), rough ER (proteins).

  • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies/packages proteins.

  • Lysosomes: Digestion (animals).

  • Vacuoles: Storage (plants).

  • Cell Membrane: Controls entry/exit of substances.

Cell Transport

Movement of Substances Across Membranes

Cells regulate the movement of substances across their membranes to maintain homeostasis.

  • Passive Transport: Diffusion (movement from high → low concentration), osmosis (diffusion of water), facilitated diffusion (protein channels).

  • Active Transport: Uses ATP, moves substances against gradient.

  • Bulk Transport: Endocytosis (into cell), exocytosis (out of cell).

Energy & Metabolism

ATP and Energy Conversion

Cells require energy to perform work, which is provided by the molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

  • Photosynthesis: Occurs in chloroplasts. Converts CO2 + H2O + light → C6H12O6 + O2.

  • Cellular Respiration: Occurs in mitochondria. Converts C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + ATP.

  • Light-dependent reactions: ATP & NADPH produced.

  • Calvin Cycle: Uses ATP & NADPH to make glucose.

  • Stages of Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis (cytoplasm), Krebs Cycle (mitochondria), Electron Transport Chain (mitochondria).

Key Equations:

  • Photosynthesis:

  • Cellular Respiration:

Cell Division

Mitosis and Meiosis

Cell division is essential for growth, repair, and reproduction. There are two main types: mitosis and meiosis.

  • Mitosis: For growth & repair. One diploid cell divides to form two identical diploid cells.

  • Phases of Mitosis (PMAT): Prophase (chromosomes condense), Metaphase (line up in middle), Anaphase (sister chromatids separate), Telophase (nuclear reform).

  • Meiosis: For gametes. One diploid cell divides to form four unique haploid cells. Involves crossing over & independent assortment for genetic variation.

Genetics

DNA Structure and Function

DNA is the hereditary material in all living organisms. It is a double helix composed of nucleotide bases.

  • Bases: A-T & C-G (adenine-thymine, cytosine-guanine).

  • Replication: Semi-conservative (each new strand has one old and one new).

  • Transcription: DNA → RNA (in nucleus).

  • Translation: RNA → Protein (at ribosome, using tRNA & codons).

Mendelian Genetics

  • Dominant vs. Recessive Traits: Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles.

  • Punnett Squares: Used to predict genetic crosses.

  • Homozygous: Two identical alleles.

  • Heterozygous: Two different alleles.

  • Genotype: Genetic makeup.

  • Phenotype: Physical expression.

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