General Biology Final Exam Study Guide: Key Concepts and Review Topics

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Water is essential for life due to its unique chemical and physical properties, which arise from its molecular structure and hydrogen bonding.

Cohesion and Adhesion: Water molecules stick to each other (cohesion) and to other substances (adhesion), facilitating transport in plants.
High Specific Heat: Water can absorb or release large amounts of heat with little temperature change, helping regulate climate and body temperature.
Solvent Properties: Water is known as the "universal solvent" because it dissolves many substances, enabling chemical reactions in cells.
Density of Ice: Ice is less dense than liquid water, allowing it to float and insulate aquatic environments.

pH Scale and Its Meaning

The pH scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution.
pH is defined as:
Acidic solutions have pH < 7, basic solutions have pH > 7, and neutral solutions have pH = 7.

Condensation (Dehydration) Reactions: Join monomers to form polymers by removing a water molecule.
Hydrolysis Reactions: Break polymers into monomers by adding a water molecule.
Example: Formation and breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

Sugars (Carbohydrates): Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose), disaccharides (e.g., sucrose), polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose).
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Fats (Lipids): Triglycerides formed from glycerol and fatty acids via ester bonds.
Bonds: Glycosidic (carbohydrates), peptide (proteins), ester (lipids).

DNA: Double-stranded, deoxyribose sugar, bases A, T, C, G; stores genetic information.
RNA: Single-stranded, ribose sugar, bases A, U, C, G; involved in protein synthesis.

Prokaryotic Cells: Lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; DNA in nucleoid region; examples include Bacteria and Archaea.
Eukaryotic Cells: Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; examples include plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

Plant Cells: Have cell walls, chloroplasts, and large central vacuoles.
Animal Cells: Lack cell walls and chloroplasts; have small vacuoles and centrioles.

Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA); controls cell activities.
Mitochondria: Site of cellular respiration; produces ATP.
Chloroplasts: Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER synthesizes proteins; smooth ER synthesizes lipids.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.
Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes; break down waste.
Vacuoles: Storage of substances; large central vacuole in plants.

Proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as free-living prokaryotes engulfed by ancestral eukaryotic cells.
Evidence: Double membranes, their own DNA, and ribosomes similar to prokaryotes.

Cellular Respiration: Process by which cells extract energy from glucose to produce ATP.
Three main stages: Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle), Electron Transport Chain.
Photosynthesis: Process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose).
Two main stages: Light-dependent reactions and Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions).

Glycolysis: Occurs in cytoplasm; produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose.
Krebs Cycle: Occurs in mitochondria; produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 4 CO2 per glucose.
Electron Transport Chain: Produces about 34 ATP per glucose.
Total ATP Yield: Up to 38 ATP per glucose (theoretical maximum).

Meiosis: A type of cell division that reduces chromosome number by half, producing four genetically unique gametes.
Occurs in sexually reproducing organisms; ensures genetic diversity.
Involves two divisions: Meiosis I (homologous chromosomes separate) and Meiosis II (sister chromatids separate).

Law of Segregation: Each individual has two alleles for each gene, which segregate during gamete formation.
Law of Independent Assortment: Genes on different chromosomes assort independently during meiosis.
Homologous Chromosomes: Chromosome pairs with the same genes but possibly different alleles.

Review all material covered since exam 3, including diagrams, test items, and homework assignments.
Focus on understanding concepts, definitions, and the ability to apply knowledge to new situations.