General Biology I: Comprehensive Study Guide (Final Exam Preparation)

Study Guide - Smart Notes

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Living organisms share several fundamental characteristics that distinguish them from non-living matter.

Emergent Properties: New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, due to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.
Cell Theory: All living things are composed of cells, which are the basic units of life.

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds: Atoms are the smallest units of matter; elements are pure substances consisting of one type of atom; compounds are substances formed from two or more elements.
Atomic Number and Mass Number: Atomic number is the number of protons; mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons.
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Chemical Bonds: Covalent (sharing electrons), ionic (transfer of electrons), hydrogen bonds (weak attractions between polar molecules), van der Waals interactions (weak, transient interactions).
Molecular Formulas and Structural Diagrams: Representations of molecules and their structures.

Water is essential for life due to its unique chemical and physical properties.

Properties: Cohesion, adhesion, solvent abilities, ice formation, heat absorption.
Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic: Hydrophilic substances interact well with water; hydrophobic substances do not.

The pH scale measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

Importance of Carbon: Carbon's ability to form four covalent bonds makes it the backbone of organic molecules.
Isomers: Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures.
Functional Groups: Hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, methyl, phosphate.

Carbohydrates: Monomers (monosaccharides), polymers (polysaccharides), glycosidic bonds, dehydration synthesis, hydrolysis.
Lipids: Fats (saturated vs. unsaturated), phospholipids, steroids.
Proteins: Amino acids (monomers), peptide bonds, primary/secondary/tertiary/quaternary structure, denaturation, functions (enzymes, structure, signaling, etc.).
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, nucleotide structure, base pairing, functions.

Why Are Cells So Small? Surface area-to-volume ratio limits cell size.
Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotes have both.
Organelles and Their Functions: Nucleus, rough/smooth ER, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, peroxisomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts.

Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
Selective Permeability: Allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
Membrane Proteins: Transport, signal transduction, cell recognition, etc.

Passive Transport: Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis.
Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP); includes primary and secondary active transport.
Bulk Transport: Endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated), exocytosis.

Potential vs. Kinetic Energy: Stored vs. energy of motion.
Thermodynamics: First law (energy conservation), second law (entropy increases).
Enzymes: Biological catalysts that lower activation energy, specificity, active site, induced fit, factors affecting enzyme activity.

ATP: Main energy currency of the cell.
Redox Reactions: Oxidation (loss of electrons), reduction (gain of electrons).
Redox Equations: (Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain)

Aerobic Respiration: Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, chemiosmosis.
Fermentation: Anaerobic process; lactic acid and alcohol fermentation.
Inputs/Outputs: Glucose, ATP, NADH, FADH2, O2, CO2, H2O.

Phases: Interphase (G1, S, G2), Mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase), cytokinesis.
Checkpoints: G1, G2, and metaphase checkpoints regulate progression.
Malignant Tumors: Uncontrolled cell division.

DNA Structure: Double helix, antiparallel strands, complementary base pairing.
Replication: Semi-conservative, involves DNA polymerase, helicase, ligase, primase.
Chromosomes: Chromatin, chromatids, centromeres, autosomes, sex chromosomes.

Transcription: DNA to RNA; involves RNA polymerase, promoters, transcription factors.
RNA Processing: 5' cap, poly-A tail, splicing (removal of introns).
Translation: mRNA to protein; genetic code, codons, tRNA, ribosomes.
Mutations: Changes in DNA sequence; can affect gene expression and protein function.

This study guide is a summary and does not include all details from lectures. Students should refer to class notes and textbooks for comprehensive understanding.